15 The problems in COMBINATION

問題是綜合的

現(xiàn)實中遇到的邏輯錯誤往往并不是按照所學一個一個來的米者，都是綜合在一起蔓搞，這才讓人難以分辨，難以區(qū)分机蔗。邏輯混亂讳嘱。

這一部分很好的復習了前面學習過的幾種邏輯謬誤以及給出了如何避免這種謬誤的方法沥潭。

時刻提醒自己保持批判性的思維，這個技能是需要訓練的拔恰。

We have seen how each of the problems discussed in Chapters 6 through 14 occurs inisolation. Although it is common to find them that way, it is at least as common to find them occurring in various combinations. For example, "mine is better" thinking may lead us to resist new ideas that challenge our cherished beliefs. Similarly, the urge to conform may lead us to accept stereotyped images of people and institutions, and these, in turn, may lead us to make unwarranted assumptions or oversimplify complex situations. The possible combinations that may occur are innumerable, yet they all have one thing in common: Cumulatively they obstruct critical thinking more than anyone of their component problems does singly.

我們已經看到第6章到第14章中討論的每個問題是如何獨立發(fā)生的。雖然通常以這種方式找到它們河爹，但至少發(fā)現(xiàn)它們以各種組合發(fā)生是常見的夷恍。例如酿雪，“我的更好”的想法可能會導致我們抵制挑戰(zhàn)我們珍視信念的新想法。同樣袋励，合規(guī)的愿望可能導致我們接受人們和機構的刻板印象茬故，這反過來可能導致我們做出毫無根據的假設或過分簡化在復雜的情況下〖叵伲可能發(fā)生的組合可能是無數(shù)的放棒，但它們都有一個共同點：累積地阻礙批判性思維比任何一個組成部分問題都單獨间螟。

EXAMINING THE PROBLEMS IN COMBINATION

考察組合中的問題

Let's examine several combinations of problems closely and determine the specific ways they affect the thinking of the people involved.

讓我們仔細研究幾個問題組合，并確定它們影響相關人員思維的具體方式摩泪。

Claude is an active worker for hispolitical party. Because he feels a strong personal identification with the party and is therefore convinced that its platform and its candidates represent the salvation of the country, he is unusually zealous in his efforts. One day he is having lunch with Nell, a business acquaintance. The discussion predictably turns to politics. Claude delivers a few pronouncements on his candidate and the opposition. His candidate, he asserts, is a brilliant theorist and practitioner. Her opponent, in Claude's view, is a complete fool.Claude delivers a few pronouncements on his candidate and the opposition.? Claude volunteers harsh judgments of the opponent's political record and of his family and associates and rattles on about how the country will be ruined if he is elected.

克勞德是他的政黨的積極工作者嚷掠。因為他對黨有強烈的個人身份認同，因此相信其平臺和候選人代表了國家的救贖，因此他的努力異常熱烈孙蒙。有一天，他正在和商業(yè)熟人奈爾共進午餐坦胶。討論可以預見地轉向政治顿苇。克勞德對他的候選人和反對派發(fā)表了幾個聲明幔翰。他斷言，他的候選人是一位出色的理論家和實踐者做修。克勞德認為旋炒，她的對手是一個完全的傻瓜瘫镇⊙枰В克勞德志愿者對對手的嚴厲判斷他的政治記錄，他的家人和同伙秉继，以及關于如果他當選，國家將會被毀滅的搖擺聲盔腔。

After listening for a while, Nell challenges Claude. She quietly presents facts that disprove many of Claude's ideas and points up the extravagance of Claude'sassertions. Thought there is nothing personal in Nell's challenge, and it is presented in a calm, objective way, Claude becomes angry. He accuses Nell of distorting his words, denies having said certain things that he did say, and stubbornly clings to others despite the facts Nell has presented.

聽了一段時間后，內爾挑戰(zhàn)克勞德灯荧。她悄悄地提出反駁克勞德許多觀點的事實，并指出克勞德斷言的行為放縱厉斟。認為奈爾的挑戰(zhàn)沒有任何個人特征，并且以冷靜客觀的方式呈現(xiàn)强衡，克勞德生氣擦秽。他指責內爾扭曲了他的話，否認說過某些他曾經說過的話漩勤，并且盡管內爾已經提出了事實感挥，他頑固地依附于他人。

Let's reconstruct what happened in terms of the problems we have been studying. Claude's initial problem was his"mine is better" attitude, which blinded him to the possibility that his candidate and platform were not perfect and that the opposition had some merit. In other words, it made him overvalue the things he identified with and undervalue those he did not. Accordingly, when he spoke about the candidates and the platforms, he was inclined to oversimplify. Then when Nell called his errors to his attention (as someone sooner or later was bound to do), Claude was driven to relieve his embarrassment through face-saving devices. Because the stronger one's commitment, the greater one's reluctance to admit error,Claude undoubtedly learned little from the incident.

讓我們重新解釋我們研究過的問題越败√美穑克勞德最初的問題是他的“我的更好”的態(tài)度半哟，這使他不知道他的候選人和平臺不完美男摧，而且反對派有一些優(yōu)點。換句話說搪缨，這使他高估了他所認定的東西呻待，低估了他沒有的東西。因此荸型，當他談到候選人和平臺時改备，他傾向于過分簡化聚谁。然后，當內爾把他的錯誤稱為他的注意力時（因為某些人早晚必然會這樣做）芬膝，克勞德被驅使通過愛面子的方式來解除他的尷尬。因為強者的承諾越大搀军，不愿意承認錯誤诅福，克勞德無疑從事件中學到很少挨措。

Alma is very conservative in her dress. She strongly resists any fashion change. When miniskirts came back into style, she was scandalized. She was fond of remarking, "today's designers are nothing but perverts intent on destroying the very idea of modesty and promoting moral decay."

阿爾瑪?shù)娜棺臃浅１Ｊ卣端伞Ｋ龔娏业种迫魏螘r尚變化钧椰。當迷你裙回歸風格時，她很震驚寄锐。她評論說：“今天的設計師只不過是意圖破壞謙虛和推動道德腐敗的意圖而已奈懒。

Like Claude, Alma was the victim of acombination of problems in the new and to exaggerate the importance of the matter. This perspective caused her to form a hasty conclusion about the character and intentions of miniskirt designers and to over-generalize that conclusion to all designers.

和克勞德一樣色解，阿爾瑪也是新人遇到的一系列問題的受害者茂嗓，并且夸大了這件事的重要性。這種觀點讓她對迷你裙設計師的性格和意圖形成了一個草率的結論科阎，并將這一結論過度地推廣到所有設計師述吸。

Ten years ago, Sam fell in with a group of sexually promiscuous people. At first he had some reservations about becoming involved with them. After all, their attitudes toward sex and marriage were very unlike those had grown up with. But the group seemed so exciting, so modern, so "relevant." Sam wanted very much to be accepted and approved by them. Once he was part of the group, he began buying books that glorify group sex and attack traditional attitudes toward sexuality, and attending lectures calling sexual promiscuity and enlightened, liberating practice. Now Sam assumes that all sexually promiscuous people are intellectually courageous and emotionally healthy, and that monogamous people are unthinking, frightened, and repressed. Furthermore, he believes that warnings about AIDS are based on a puritanical aversion to sexual expression.

十年前，Sam陷入了一群性混雜的人。起初他對參與他們有所保留蝌矛。畢竟道批，他們對性和婚姻的態(tài)度與那些長大的人不同。但是這個團體看起來如此令人興奮入撒，如此現(xiàn)代隆豹，如此“相關”。山姆非常希望被他們接受和批準茅逮。一旦他成為這個團隊的一員璃赡，他就開始購買宣揚集體性的書籍，并攻擊傳統(tǒng)的對性的態(tài)度献雅，并參加演講碉考，要求性濫交和開明，解放實踐⊥ι恚現(xiàn)在侯谁，薩姆認為所有性混雜的人在智力上有勇氣和情緒健康，而且一夫一妻制的人不會思考章钾，害怕和壓制墙贱。此外，他認為有關艾滋病的警告是基于對性表達的清教厭惡贱傀。

Sam's urge to conform was too strong for his own good. His desire to be popular, to belong to the "in" crowd,overrode his individuality. He did not join the group out of conviction, after thinking carefully about its good and bad points and weighing its values. He joined merely out of a desire to be included. This conformist urge also led him to suspend his critical sense. Instead and reading both favorable and unfavorable analyses of promiscuity, he ignored all unfavorable, and even all mixed, views. This narrow, sheltered perspective eventually resulted in his non-promiscuous alike, based on stereotyped views of both. It also caused him to adopt a foolish position concerning the danger of AIDS.

為了他自己的利益惨撇，薩姆渴望遵守規(guī)則太強烈了。他渴望流行府寒，屬于“在”人群串纺，超越了他的個性。他并沒有在仔細考慮其優(yōu)點和缺點并衡量其價值之后因信念而加入該團體椰棘。他僅僅是出于一種被包含的欲望而加入。這種依從性的要求也導致他暫停了他的批判意識榄笙。相反邪狞，他沒有閱讀對濫交的有利和不利的分析，相反他忽略了所有不利的茅撞，甚至是所有混雜的觀點帆卓。這種狹隘的，庇護的觀點最終導致了他的非混雜性米丘，因為他們都是基于對兩者的刻板印象剑令。這也使他對艾滋病的危險采取愚蠢的立場。

AVOIDING THE PROBLEMSIN COMBINATION

避免混合邏輯錯誤

When combinations of problems occur, the effect is to multiply the obstacles to critical thinking. One error reinforces another, triggers a third, and so on. More over, though such chain reactions usually occur in one area – with Claude it was politics, with Alma fashion, with Sam sex – they often spread and influence our thinking in other areas as well. A person who indulges unthinking reactions to one aspect of life will very likely become more unthinking, notless. For simple, given the complexity of many everyday problems and the general temptation to deal with them in the easiest, quickest way possible,ready-made pat answers have a certain undeniable appeal.

當出現(xiàn)問題的組合時拄查，其效果是增加到批判性思維的障礙吁津。一個錯誤加強另一個錯誤，觸發(fā)第三個錯誤，依此類推碍脏。更重要的是梭依，盡管這樣的連鎖反應通常發(fā)生在一個領域 - 與克勞德對政治一樣，阿爾瑪對時尚和薩姆對性行為 - 他們經常在其他領域傳播和影響我們的思維典尾。一個對生活的某個方面放縱無知的人很可能會變得更多不思考役拴，而不是更少。簡單來說钾埂，考慮到許多日常問題的復雜性以及以最簡單河闰，最快速的方式處理它們的普遍誘惑，現(xiàn)成的拍拍答案具有一定的不可否認的吸引力褥紫。

The first and most important step in solving these problems in combination, like the first step insolving them individually, is to recognize that you are prone to them. They are not the "other person's" problems. Nor do they afflict only the uneducated or less intelligent. They can be found in varying degrees in all people.

解決這些問題的第一步也是最重要的一步姜性，就像單獨解決這些問題的第一步一樣，要認識到你很容易遇到這些問題故源。這不是“他人”的問題污抬。他們也不僅只存在于那些沒有受過教育的或不那么聰明的人。所有人都可以在不同程度上找到他們绳军。

Another helpful step is to remind yourself from time to time what each problem consists of and how you can most effectively deal with it. To help you do this, here is a brief summary of all the problems discussed in Chapters 6 through 14.

另一個有用的步驟是不時提醒自己印机，每個問題包含哪些內容以及如何最有效地處理它。為了幫助你做到這一點门驾，下面簡要總結第6章到第14章討論的所有問題射赛。

The Problems:

問題

"Mine is better"

我的更好

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Preferring your own ideas for no other reason than that they are yours. Remind yourself that all people tend to regard their ideas that way, but critical thinking demands that you examine your ideas as you would other people's.

如何識別和處理它們： 喜歡自己的想法，除了他們是你的以外奶是，沒有別的原因楣责。提醒自己，所有的人都傾向于用這種方式來看待他們的想法聂沙，但批判性思維需要你像別人一樣審視自己的想法秆麸。

The Problems:

問題

Resistance to change

拒絕改變

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Proffering familiar to unfamiliar ideas.Expect your first reaction to new ideas to be negative. Set that reaction aside and judge the idea on the basis of your critical appraisal.

如何認識和處理它們： 與不熟悉的想法比，更傾向于熟悉的想法及汉。假設你對新想法的第一反應是消極的沮趣。把這個反應放在一邊，根據你的批判性評價來判斷這個想法坷随。

The Problems:

問題

Conformity

從眾性

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Thinking the way others do because of the group or your desire to belong. (Or, conversely, thinking the way others do not, simply because they do not.) base your thinking on the evidence and not on how others do or don't think.

如何認識和處理它們： 思考他人因為團隊或你的歸屬欲望而行事的方式房铭。（或者，相反地温眉，考慮別人不這樣做的方式缸匪，僅僅因為他們不這樣做）將你的思考建立在證據而不是別人如何思考的基礎上。

The Problems:

問題

Face-saving

愛面子

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Attempting to preserve your self-image or the image you project to others when some unpleasant reality threatens it.Distinguish between what you wish were so and what is so. Be honest with yourself.

如何識別和處理它們： 試圖保護你的自我形象或你留給他人的印象类溢，當一些不愉快的現(xiàn)實威脅它時凌蔬。區(qū)分你的愿望是什么，以及它現(xiàn)實是如何的。不要自欺欺人龟梦。

The Problems:

問題

Stereotyping

刻板印象

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Making fixed, unbending generalizations about people, places, or things. Remind yourself that most things do not fit into neat categories. In addition, resist the feeling that you know what the correct judgment is when that feeling arises early in the information-gathering process.

如何認識和處理它們： 對人物隐锭，地點或事物進行固定的不變的概括。提醒自己计贰，大多數(shù)事情不適合整齊的類別钦睡。此外，在信息收集過程早期出現(xiàn)這種感覺時躁倒，要抵制這種感覺荞怒，即你知道正確的判斷是什么。

The Problems:

問題

Oversimplification

過分簡化

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Simplifying that does not merely scale down complex matters to more manageable proportion but twists and distorts them. Besure your views are an accurate representation of reality.

如何認識和處理它們： 簡化它不僅僅是將復雜的事物縮小到更容易管理的程度秧秉，而是扭曲和扭曲它們褐桌。確保你的觀點是現(xiàn)實的準確表達。

The Problems:

問題

Hasty conclusions

倉促結論

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Judgments made before sufficient evidence is obtained. Withhold judgment until you have answered all important questions pertaining to the issue. If you must answer without sufficient evidence, use the "If… then" approach. If the evidence will support probability but not certainty, limit your conclusion to one that is merely probable.

如何識別和處理它們： 獲得充分證據前做出的判斷象迎。直到你回答了與這個問題有關的所有重要問題時才進行判斷荧嵌。如果您必須回答沒有足夠的證據，請使用“If ... then”方法砾淌。如果證據支持可能性但不確定啦撮，則將您的結論限制為僅可能的結論。

The Problems:

問題

Unwarranted assumptions

沒有依據的假設

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Ideas that you have in mind and that influence your reasoning without your being conscious of it; ideas you take for granted.Develop the habit of reading (and listening) between the lines for ideas that are unexpressed but nevertheless clearly implied.

如何識別和處理它們： 你想到的那些想法汪厨，這些想法在你沒有意識到的情況下會影響你的推理; 你認為理所當然的想法赃春。培養(yǎng)閱讀（和傾聽）習慣的習慣，以表達未被表達但明確暗示的想法劫乱。

The Problems:

問題

Logical fallacies

邏輯謬誤

How to Recognize and deal with them:? Specific errors that occur in your reasoning about issues. Monitor your thinking for signs of these errors. Especially when you are planning an oral or written presentation of your views.

如何識別和處理它們： 在對問題的推理中發(fā)生的特定錯誤织中。監(jiān)視你思考時發(fā)生的對這些錯誤的想法的信號。特別是當您計劃對您的觀點進行口頭或書面介紹時衷戈。

APPLICATIONS

應用

Analyze each of the following cases as the chapter does with the cases of Claude, Alma, and Sam:

根據Claude狭吼，Alma和Sam的案例分析以下每個案例：

A middle-aged couple, Ann and Dan , learn that their twenty-two year old daughter, a senior in college, is an active lesbian. They are appalled. They were raised to believe that lesbian is mis willful moral degeneracy. Struggling to cope with their new awareness, each begins to blame the other – Ann suggests Dan has always been cold and aloof with the girl, and Dan is sure Ann has been too close to her, has smothered her with affection. After many hours of arguing, they decide that there is more direct cause of her deviance – the college. "You'd think educated people would be alert to the danger of degeneracy with all the girls crammed into dorms,"Ann cries. Dan shouts, "Damn it, I'm going to send a letter to the chairman of that college's board of trustees. I want the dean of students fired.

一對中年夫婦Ann和Dan了解到，他們大二的二十二歲大的女兒是一名積極的女同性戀殖妇。他們感到震驚搏嗡。他們被提出認為女同性戀是故意的道德墮落。為了應對他們的新意識拉一，每個人都開始責怪另一個人 - Ann建議Dan一直對這個女孩感到冷淡和孤僻，Dan確信Ann離她太近旧乞，并且已經對她產生了感情蔚润。經過數(shù)小時的爭論后，他們認為她的偏差有更直接的原因 - 學院尺栖。 “你會認為受過教育的人會對所有女孩擠進宿舍的墮落危險保持警覺嫡纠，”Ann哭著說。丹喊道，“該死的除盏，我要寫信給該學院董事會主席叉橱，我想讓學生的院長被解雇。

Stephen enrolls as a freshman at Progress Technical College. He notices that he has an eight o'clock Englishclass three days a week. Because he's a late riser, this disturbs him. But when he attends the first class, he notices that the instructor's name is Stein."Wow," he thinks to himself, "What better break could a Jewishkid who likes to sleep in the morning have than a Jewish instructor!" Over the next few weeks, he seizes any excuse to stay after class, talk with Mr.Stein, and win his favor. For his first two compositions, Stephen chooses subjects that will permit him to stress his Jewishness (and thereby impress Mr.Stein). Soon he decides that Mr. Stein "understands" him. He begins to miss class occasionally and hands in about on assignment out of four. When he sees Mr. Stein, Stephen plies him with pathetic tales of misfortune. His midterm grade is D, but he tells himself that Mr. Stein is just trying to scare him and will raise his grade in the end. Thus he attends class even less frequently and does less work. Eventually the semester ends, and he receives an F in English. His first reaction is disbelief. He rushes to see Mr. Stein, who says, "I made clear on the first day of class that students could expect to pass only if they attended class and did their homework faithfully. I'm sorry about the grade, but your deserve it." From that moment on, Stephen refuses to speak to Mr. Stein when he passes him on campus. And whenever the conversation is the snack bar or dorm turns to teachers, he loudly denounces Mr. Stein as a phony.

斯蒂芬在進步技術學院招收新生者蠕。他注意到他每周三天有八點英語課窃祝。因為他是一個晚起者，這使他感到不安踱侣。但是當他參加第一堂課時粪小，他注意到教師的名字是Stein。 “哇抡句，”他自言自語道探膊，“猶太教練早上喜歡睡覺的猶太小孩有什么更好的休息時間呢？”在接下來的幾周里待榔，他抓住任何借口留下課后逞壁，與斯坦先生交談，并贏得他的青睞锐锣。對于他的前兩部作品腌闯，斯蒂芬選擇了允許他強調他的猶太性的主題（從而給斯坦因留下了深刻的印象）。不久刺下，他決定斯坦先生“理解”他绑嘹。他偶爾會開始錯過課程，并在四人中分配任務橘茉。當他看到斯坦先生時工腋，斯蒂芬用悲慘的故事向他講述著他。他的中期成績是D畅卓，但他告訴自己Stein先生只是想嚇唬他擅腰，并最終提高他的成績。因此翁潘，他上課的次數(shù)更少趁冈，工作也更少。最后這個學期結束了拜马，他收到英文的F渗勘。他的第一反應是難以置信。他急忙去看斯坦先生俩莽，他說：“我在課程的第一天就明確表示學生只有在上課時才能通過旺坠，并且忠實地完成了他的作業(yè)。對于成績我很抱歉扮超，但你應該得到它“取刃。從那一刻起蹋肮，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時璧疗，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假坯辩。但他告訴自己斯坦因只是想嚇唬他，并最終提高他的成績崩侠。因此漆魔，他上課的次數(shù)更少，工作也更少啦膜。最后這個學期結束了有送，他收到英文的F。他的第一反應是難以置信僧家。他急忙去看斯坦先生雀摘，他說：“我在課程的第一天就明確表示學生只有在上課時才能通過，并且忠實地完成了他的作業(yè)八拱。對于成績我很抱歉阵赠，但你應該得到它“。從那一刻起肌稻，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話清蚀。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假爹谭。但他告訴自己斯坦因只是想嚇唬他枷邪，并最終提高他的成績。因此诺凡，他上課的次數(shù)更少东揣，工作也更少。最后這個學期結束了腹泌，他收到英文的F嘶卧。他的第一反應是難以置信。他急忙去看斯坦先生凉袱，他說：“我在課程的第一天就明確表示學生只有在上課時才能通過芥吟，并且忠實地完成了他的作業(yè)。對于成績我很抱歉专甩，但是你應得的“钟鸵。從那一刻起，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話涤躲。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時棺耍，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假。最后這個學期結束了篓叶，他收到英文的F烈掠。他的第一反應是難以置信。他急忙去看斯坦先生缸托，他說：“我在課程的第一天就明確表示學生只有在上課時才能通過左敌，并且忠實地完成了他的作業(yè)。對于成績我很抱歉俐镐，但你應該得到它“矫限。從那一刻起，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話佩抹。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時叼风，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假。最后這個學期結束了棍苹，他收到英文的F无宿。他的第一反應是難以置信。他急忙去看斯坦先生枢里，他說：“我在課程的第一天就明確表示學生只有在上課時才能通過孽鸡，并且忠實地完成了他的作業(yè)。對于成績我很抱歉栏豺，但你應該得到它“彬碱。從那一刻起，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話奥洼。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時巷疼，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假。從那一刻起灵奖，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話嚼沿。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假桑寨。從那一刻起伏尼，斯蒂芬拒絕在斯坦因在校園里經過時與他講話缠局。而每當談話是小吃店或宿舍轉向老師時娩怎，他大聲譴責斯坦因先生是一個虛假。

Three Southern California professor of medicine devised a hoax as an experiment. They paid a professional actor to lecture three groups educators.Armed with a fake identity, "Dr. Myron L. Fox of the Albert Einstein University," false but impressive credentials, and a scholarly sounding topic, "Mathematical Game Theory as Applied to Physical Education,"the actor proceeded to present one meaningless, conflicting statement after another. His words were a combination of double-talk and academic jargon.During the question and answer period, he made even less sense.Yet not one of the fifty-five educators in his audience realized they had been tricked. Virtually all of them believed they had learned something. Some even praised the imposter in this manner, "Excellent presentation, enjoyed listening. Has warm manner… lively examples…l extremely articulate." Explain what combination of the problems in Chapters 6 through 14 may have accounted for the audience's gullibility.

南加利福尼亞州的三位醫(yī)學教授設計了一個騙局溶褪，作為一個實驗沙咏。他們付了專業(yè)演員來演講三組教育工作者辨图。 “阿爾伯特愛因斯坦大學的Myron L. Fox博士說，”虛假但令人印象深刻的證書以及一篇學術上有爭議的話題“適用于體育的數(shù)學博弈論”肢藐，演員接著展示了一個毫無意義的故河，相互矛盾的說法。他的話是雙重談話和學術術語的結合吆豹。在問答期間鱼的，他更沒有意義理盆。 然而，在他的觀眾中凑阶，五十五名教育工作者中沒有一個意識到他們被欺騙了猿规。 幾乎所有人都相信他們已經學到了一些東西。有人甚至以這種方式稱贊這位冒名頂替者：“出色的演講宙橱，喜歡聽姨俩，熱情的態(tài)度......活潑的例子......非常清晰∈χ＃” 解釋第6章到第14章中的問題的組合可能是否引起了觀眾的輕信环葵。

Determine your position on each of the following cases, being sure to avoid all the problems reviewed in this chapter.

確定你在以下每種情況下的立場，確保避免本章所述的所有問題宝冕。

When Alabama prisons and jails became seriously overcrowded, a U.S. district judge ordered that more than 300 convicts be granted early release. The group included murderers, rapists, and repeat offenders. The judge's argument was that serious overcrowding in prisons and jails is a violation of prisoners' rights against "cruel and unusual punishment." Do you share the judge's view?

當阿拉巴馬州的監(jiān)獄和監(jiān)獄嚴重擁擠時张遭，美國地區(qū)法官下令將300多名罪犯提前釋放。這些人包括兇手猬仁，強奸犯和屢犯者帝璧。法官的論點是，監(jiān)獄和監(jiān)獄嚴重擁擠是對囚犯不應被“殘忍和不尋常的懲罰”的權利的侵犯湿刽。你是否贊同法官的觀點的烁？

U.S. law has accorded most charitable and educational groups tax-exempt status as long as they refrainfrom lobbying activities. However, veterans groups like the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars were traditionally regarded as exceptions; that is, they were permitted to lobby extensively on such issues as the ratification of the Panama Canal treaties, Alaskan national parks, national security, and Saturday mail delivery (as well as issues more directly involving veterans)without jeopardizing their tax-exempt status. Then in 1982 a federal appeal scourt eliminated special treatment for veterans groups, arguing that it violated the equal protection guarantees of the Constitution. Do you agree with this court decision?

只要他們不參加游說活動，美國法律就賦予大部分慈善和教育團體免稅地位诈闺。然而渴庆，像美國軍團和外國戰(zhàn)爭退伍軍人這樣的退伍軍人傳統(tǒng)上被認為是例外。也就是說雅镊，他們被允許在批準巴拿馬運河條約襟雷，阿拉斯加國家公園，國家安全和星期六郵件遞送（以及更直接涉及退伍軍人的問題）等問題上廣泛游說仁烹，而不損害其免稅地位耸弄。然后在1982年，聯(lián)邦上訴法院取消了退伍軍人團體的特殊待遇卓缰，認為它違反了憲法的平等保護保障计呈。你同意這個法庭判決嗎？

Evaluate each of the following arguments carefully. Determine what the most reasonable position is and what makes it so. Avoid the problems in thinking reviewed in this chapter. (Be careful not to assume that the view expressed here necessarily contains errors. It may be error-free!)

仔細評估以下每個爭論征唬。確定最合理的位置是什么以及是什么使其成為可能捌显。避免那些在本章中思考的問題。（注意不要認為這里表達的視觀點然包含錯誤总寒，它可能沒有錯誤７鐾帷）

For years criminals have sold the rights to their life stories to publishers and movie producers. The more terrible their crimes, the more money publishers and producers have usually been willing to pay. This practice in effect rewards criminals for their crimes. This practice should be ended. The profits criminals receive in this manner should be placed in a fund to be distributed among the victims of their crimes.

多年來，犯罪分子已經將自己的生活故事權賣給了出版物和電影制作人摄闸。他們的罪行越可怕善镰，出版商和制片人通常愿意支付的錢越多妹萨。這種做法實際上是為了獎勵犯罪分子的罪行。這種做法應該結束炫欺。犯罪分子以這種方式獲得的利潤應當存入基金中眠副，分配給他們的犯罪受害者。

The New Testament contains these words from St. Paul: "Let every person be in subjection to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those which exist are established by God. Therefore he who resists authority has opposed the ordinance of God; and they who have opposed will receive condemnation upon themselves. For rulers are not a cause of fear for good behavior, but for evil. Do you want to have no fear of authority? Do what is good, and you will have praise from the same… wherefore it is necessary to be in subjection, not only because of wrath, but also for conscience's sake." It is clear from thesewords that all Christians have an obligation to be loyal to their country's government and not to challenge it. Therefore Christians who live in the United States do wrong when they join any protest movement and even when they support protest movements in foreign countries – for example, the Solidarity movement in Poland.

新約圣經包含圣保祿的這些話：“讓每個人服從執(zhí)政當局竣稽，因為除了上帝以外，沒有權威霍弹，而存在的人是上帝建立的毫别，因此他抵制權威的人反對上帝的這條法令;而反對的人會受到自己的譴責，因為統(tǒng)治者不是害怕良好行為的原因典格，而是邪惡的原因岛宦，你想不要害怕權威嗎？做好事耍缴，你從同一個行為得到贊美...因此砾肺，必須要服從，不僅是因為憤怒防嗡，而且是為了良知变汪。“從這些話語中可以清楚地看出蚁趁，所有基督徒都有義務忠于國家的政府裙盾，而不是去挑戰(zhàn)它。因此他嫡，居住在美國的基督徒在參加任何抗議運動時番官，甚至當他們支持外國的抗議運動時都會犯錯，例如波蘭的團結運動钢属。

There is a widespread notion in the United States that the censorship of books and other materials that are found objectionable is an undemocratic action. That notion is false. If a bookor magazine or stereo record or videotape contains ideas that are philosophically alien to the American way of life, it is not only the right but the duty of responsible citizens to remove it from circulation. This duty is especially strong in the case of our children. We would not stand idly by and allow our children or our neighbor's children to drink poison. We would take it from the mand dispose of it. Why should we be any less vigilant about what is poison to the mind than what is poison to the body?

美國有一個普遍的觀點徘熔，認為對書籍和其他材料的審查令人反感是一種不民主的行為。這個概念是錯誤的淆党。如果一本書或雜志或立體唱片或錄像帶包含與美國生活方式在哲學上不相容的想法酷师，那么這不僅是權利也是負責任的公民有責任將其從流通中移除。對于我們的孩子來說宁否，這項義務尤其強大窒升。我們不會袖手旁觀，允許我們的孩子或鄰居的孩子喝毒藥慕匠。我們會從它們身上拿走它并處理它饱须。為什么我們對頭腦中的毒藥比對身體的毒藥更不那么警惕？

In recent years there have been more and more restrictions on smokers. Whereas smokers used to be free to lightup anywhere at any time, the antismoking lobby has managed to eliminate smoking on many airline flights, in many offices, and in a variety of public places. In addition, they have seen to it that smokers are segregated in restaurants. All these actions are a denial of smokers' rights. The health risks of smoking have been overstated, but even so, if I choose to take risks with my health, that is my business and no one else's. if a co-worker doesn't want my smoke to drift her way, she has only to buy a small air purifier. If airline passengers want aspecial non-smoking section for themselves, I won't object – but they have no business objecting when I demand a smoking section.

近年來台谊，對吸煙者的限制越來越多蓉媳。盡管吸煙者隨時可以隨時隨地點亮譬挚，但吸煙大廳已經設法消除了許多航空公司航班，許多辦公室以及各種公共場所的吸煙情況酪呻。此外减宣，他們已經看到，吸煙者在餐館隔離玩荠。所有這些行為都是拒絕吸煙者的權利漆腌。吸煙的健康風險被夸大了，但即便如此阶冈，如果我選擇冒著健康的風險闷尿，那是我的生意，而不是別人的女坑。如果一位同事不希望我的煙霧飄過她填具，她只需要購買一臺小型空氣凈化器。如果航空公司的乘客想要自己特殊的非吸煙區(qū)匆骗，我不會反對 - 但是當我要求吸煙區(qū)時劳景，他們沒有商業(yè)反對意見。

In 1983 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a driver's refusal to take a blood alcohol test can be used as evidence against him or her. I believe the Court erred in making that decision.

One reason for refusing to take a blood alcohol test is knowledge of one's drunken condition. But that is not the only possible reason. It's possible for a sober person to refuse the test because he sees it as an invasion of privacy.In such a case the "evidence" would probably be interpreted by the judge and the jury as a sign of guilt and an innocent person would be convicted.

1983年碉就，美國最高法院裁定盟广，司機拒絕接受血液酒精測試可以作為對他或她的證據。我相信法院在做出這個決定時犯了錯誤瓮钥。拒絕參加血液酒精測試的一個原因是了解某人的醉酒狀況衡蚂。但這不是唯一可能的原因。一個清醒的人可能會拒絕這個測試骏庸，因為他認為這是對隱私的入侵毛甲。在這種情況下，“證據”可能會被法官和陪審團解釋為有罪的標志具被，而無辜者將被定罪玻募。

A woman wrote to "Dear Abby," complaining that her son was taking his fiancée's name when they married. Abby replied that the young man was an adult and free to make his own decision, so the mother should accept the situation gracefully. In my opinion,this was terrible advice. When a man caves in to his fiancée's pressure in this way, the marriage gets off to a bad start. Besides, there's something bizarre and unmanly about a man's giving up his family name. His family has a right to expect that he will maintain the family name. It has always been so and should continue to be.

一位女士寫信給“親愛的艾比”，抱怨她的兒子結婚時帶著未婚妻的名字一姿。艾比回答說七咧，年輕人是成年人，可以自由決定叮叹，所以母親應該優(yōu)雅地接受這種情況艾栋。在我看來，這是可怕的建議蛉顽。當一個男人以這種方式迎合他未婚妻的壓力時蝗砾，婚姻起步不好。此外，一個男人放棄他的姓氏有些奇怪和不合時宜悼粮。他的家人有權期望他會保持姓氏闲勺。它一直如此，應該繼續(xù)保持扣猫。

On some campuses, when damages occurs on a dormitory floor and the person responsible is not identified,repair costs are charged to all those who live on the floor. This policy is? unjust. Sometimes damage is done by strangers who are visiting the dormitory.And even in cases where the guilty party lives on the floor, it is unfair to charge innocent people, many of whom may not even know when or by whom the damage was done. If college authorities cannot determine who is responsible, no one should be charged.

在一些校園里菜循，當宿舍樓發(fā)生損壞并且沒有確定負責人時，所有這一樓層的人都會被收取維修費用申尤。這項政策是不公正的癌幕。有時候訪問宿舍的陌生人會造成傷害。即使在有罪的一方居住在這一樓的情況下昧穿，對無辜的人進行指控也是不公平的序芦，其中許多人甚至不知道何時或由誰造成的損害。如果大學當局無法確定誰應負責任粤咪，則不應對任何人提出指控。

Group discussion exercise: Select one of the cases you analyzed inapplication 4 and discuss it with two or three of your classmates. Try to reach a consensus on the issue, but be careful to avoid committing the errorsreviewed in this chapter. Be prepared to present your idea(s) to the class.

小組討論練習：選擇您在應用4中分析的一個案例渴杆，并與兩個或三個同學討論寥枝。盡量就此問題達成共識，但要小心避免犯本章所述的錯誤磁奖。準備好向班級介紹你的想法囊拜。

這個系列是對超越感覺：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻譯練習，如果覺得有幫助可以點鏈接購買第九版中文比搭，英文原版在這里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英語）