邏輯謬誤
這一部分講的是邏輯謬誤的種類(lèi)您宪，也就是說(shuō)推理不成功的類(lèi)型都有哪些默终。其實(shí)前面介紹的也是跟這里有一樣的师骗，只不過(guò)名稱不同攘残，分類(lèi)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不一樣而已。
把邏輯謬誤分類(lèi)其實(shí)是為了讓我們更加方便識(shí)別錯(cuò)誤的推理斯嚎，更加快速的識(shí)別這樣的謬誤利虫。但是其實(shí)不記住這些類(lèi)型也完全沒(méi)有關(guān)系，采用正選法堡僻，只要找出推理不合理的地方就可以了糠惫。
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning. Logicians have identified dozens of specific fallacies. However, we will limit our consideration to the most common ones. Like the other problems encountered in critical thinking, these errors occur when we approach issues carelessly. (The distinction between logical fallacies and the problems discussed in Chapters 6 through 13 is not a rigid one. Some logicians would consider certain of those problems logical fallacies.)
邏輯謬誤是推理中的錯(cuò)誤。邏輯學(xué)家已經(jīng)確定了幾十個(gè)具體的謬誤钉疫。但是硼讽，我們會(huì)將我們的考慮限制在最常見(jiàn)的考慮范圍內(nèi)。像批判性思維中遇到的其他問(wèn)題一樣牲阁，當(dāng)我們不小心處理問(wèn)題時(shí)會(huì)發(fā)生這些錯(cuò)誤固阁。（邏輯謬誤與第六章至第十三章討論的問(wèn)題之間的區(qū)別并不嚴(yán)格壤躲，有些邏輯學(xué)家會(huì)考慮某些邏輯謬誤的問(wèn)題。）
ILLOGICAL CONCLUSION
不符合邏輯的推論
For an argument to be valid, the conclusion must follow logically from the premises(assertions). In fact, the conclusion must be inescapable. An illogical conclusion is one that does not follow at all or that does not necessarily follow. Here are some examples.
為了爭(zhēng)論是有效的备燃，結(jié)論必須從邏輯上來(lái)源于前提（斷言）碉克。事實(shí)上，結(jié)論必然是不可避免的并齐。一個(gè)不合邏輯的結(jié)論是根本不遵循或不一定遵循邏輯的結(jié)論漏麦。這里有些例子。
CONCLUSION: I've got to get even with Mary because she offended me without cause.
結(jié)論：?我必須報(bào)復(fù)瑪麗况褪，因?yàn)樗裏o(wú)緣無(wú)故地冒犯了我撕贞。
COMMENT: Illogical conclusion. You don't have to respond as Mary did. You could choose to overlook or forgive the offense.
不合邏輯的結(jié)論。你不必像瑪麗那樣回應(yīng)测垛。你可以選擇忽視或以德報(bào)怨捏膨。
CONCLUSION: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns.
結(jié)論：?如果槍是非法的，只有不法分子才會(huì)有槍支食侮。?
COMMENT: Illogical conclusion. The police and the military would still have guns and, if the law so provided, so would any other people who met the new requirements for ownership.
評(píng)論：?不合邏輯的結(jié)論号涯。警察和軍方仍然會(huì)有槍支，如果法律規(guī)定如此疙描，那么任何符合所有權(quán)新要求的其他人也是如此诚隙。
CONCLUSION: The Soviet government has never given their citizens any freedoms, so their recent moves toward democracy are clearly part of a plan to get us to let down our guard and become vulnerable to attack.
結(jié)論?：蘇聯(lián)政府從未給予公民任何自由，所以他們最近走向民主的行動(dòng)顯然是讓我們放松警惕起胰，變得容易受到攻擊的計(jì)劃的一部分久又。?
COMMENT: illogical conclusion. The conclusion reached here is one possible conclusion among several. But there is insufficient evidence to consider it probable, let alone certain. The Soviet government may instead be responding to internal social pressures or to harsh economic penalties of collectivism and repression.
評(píng)論：?不合邏輯的結(jié)論。這里得出的結(jié)論是幾個(gè)可能的結(jié)論之一效五。但沒(méi)有足夠的證據(jù)來(lái)考慮這種可能性地消，更不用說(shuō)確定了。相反畏妖，蘇聯(lián)政府可能會(huì)對(duì)內(nèi)部社會(huì)壓力做出反應(yīng)脉执，或者對(duì)集體主義和鎮(zhèn)壓進(jìn)行嚴(yán)厲的經(jīng)濟(jì)處罰。
EITHER-OR THINKING
二選一（不是? 就是 ）的想法
This fallacy consists of believing that the only views one can take of an issue are extreme views. According to this belief, for example, we must be either for abortion on demand or against abortion in all cases; in favor of retaining the welfare system in its present form or abolishing it altogether. Yet it is perfectly possible to endorse abortion in some cases but not in others and to oppose welfare abuses without denying the need for welfare. To deny ourselves the opportunity even to consider moderate views on issues is to condemn ourselves to unreasonableness on most issues. Extreme views are seldom reasonable views.
這種謬誤包括認(rèn)為人們對(duì)問(wèn)題的唯一看法是極端的觀點(diǎn)戒劫。根據(jù)這一信念半夷，例如，我們?cè)谒星闆r下要么按要求墮胎或反對(duì)墮胎;贊成保留目前的福利制度或完全廢除福利制度迅细。然而巫橄，在一些情況下，而不是在其他情況下茵典，支持墮胎是完全可能的湘换，并且在不否認(rèn)福利需要的情況下反對(duì)福利濫用。否認(rèn)自己有機(jī)會(huì)甚至考慮溫和的意見(jiàn)就是要譴責(zé)我們?cè)诖蠖鄶?shù)問(wèn)題上不合理。極端的看法很少有合理的意見(jiàn)彩倚。
This does not mean that we should be wishy-washy or compromise matters of principle. If the most sensible view of an issue is total affirmation or rejection, then that is the view we should take. But we should not allow the either-or fallacy to force us to that view.
這并不意味著我們應(yīng)該軟弱無(wú)聊或妥協(xié)的原則問(wèn)題筹我。如果一個(gè)問(wèn)題的最明智的觀點(diǎn)是完全肯定或拒絕，那么我們應(yīng)該采取這種觀點(diǎn)帆离。但是蔬蕊，我們不應(yīng)該二選一的邏輯謬誤想法來(lái)迫使我們這樣看待。
ATTACKING THE PERSON
人身攻擊
There are times when the character of a person is the issue under discussion; for example, in cases where a member of Congress is being investigated for allegedly breaking or ethical violations. In such cases, it is appropriate to focus our argument on the person. However, in cases where the issue is an idea, it is inappropriate to focus on the person.
有時(shí)候一個(gè)人的性格是討論中的問(wèn)題;?例如哥谷，在國(guó)會(huì)議員因涉嫌違法或違反道德規(guī)范而被調(diào)查的情況下袁串。在這種情況下，把我們的觀點(diǎn)集中在這個(gè)人身上是恰當(dāng)?shù)暮粝铩５牵趩?wèn)題是一個(gè)想法或觀點(diǎn)的情況下赎瑰，關(guān)注該人的人身問(wèn)題是不合適的王悍。
Consider the issue of whether nuclear power plants are a danger to human beings and the environment. Among the supporters of those plants (as among the opponents) there are, presumably, informed people and uninformed, honest and dishonest, emotionally balanced and emotionally unbalanced. If we find a supporter who is uninformed, dishonest and emotionally unbalanced, what does that tell us about his side of the issue? Nothing at all. It might still be the most reasonable view. The only way to make a decision about an issue is to analyze the issue itself.
思考核電廠是否對(duì)人類(lèi)和環(huán)境構(gòu)成危險(xiǎn)的問(wèn)題。在這些工廠的支持者（作為對(duì)手之中）中餐曼，大概有人知情压储，有人不知情，誠(chéng)實(shí)和不誠(chéng)實(shí)源譬，情緒平衡和情緒失衡集惋。如果我們發(fā)現(xiàn)一個(gè)不知情的，不誠(chéng)實(shí)的和情緒不平衡的支持者踩娘，那這些對(duì)我們了解他對(duì)該問(wèn)題的觀點(diǎn)有用么刮刑？?一點(diǎn)都沒(méi)有。?這可能仍然是最合理的看法养渴。做出關(guān)于問(wèn)題的決定的唯一方法是分析問(wèn)題本身雷绢。
SHIFTING THE BURDEN OF PROOF
轉(zhuǎn)移舉證責(zé)任
Also known as argument from ignorance, this fallacy consists of demanding that others disprove our assertions. Whenever we make an assertion, it is our responsibility to support it, not other people's to refute it. (They may, of course, choose to refute it if they wish.) And the more our assertion departs from what knowledgeable people believe, the greater is our responsibility to support it.
也被稱為忽略的推論，這種謬誤包括要求其他人反駁我們的斷言理卑。每當(dāng)我們斷言時(shí)翘紊，我們有責(zé)任支持它，而不是其他人的反駁藐唠。（當(dāng)然帆疟，如果他們?cè)敢獾脑挘麄兛梢赃x擇反駁它）宇立。而我們的斷言與那些有見(jiàn)識(shí)的人相信的東西越離譜踪宠，我們就有責(zé)任支持它。
FALSE CAUSE
虛假原因 （因果謬誤）
It is perfectly natural to wonder "Why did this happen?" in fact, one mark of a critical thinker is that she asks this question more frequently than others do. However, she realizes that mere closeness in time does not prove a cause and effect relationship. In other words, one event can follow another by coincidence and thus be entirely unrelated to it.
想知道“為什么會(huì)發(fā)生這種情況泄伪？”是很自然的事情殴蓬。事實(shí)上，批判性思想家的一個(gè)標(biāo)志是，她比其他人更頻繁地提出這個(gè)問(wèn)題染厅。但是痘绎，她意識(shí)到僅僅靠近時(shí)間并不能證明是因果關(guān)系。換句話說(shuō)肖粮，一個(gè)事件可以?巧合地 緊緊跟隨另一個(gè)事件發(fā)生孤页，因此完全與它無(wú)關(guān)。
The fallacy of false cause occurs when coincidence is ignored. It consists of thinking, "If B occurred after A, A must have caused B." This error is undoubtedly the basis of most superstitions. Misfortune befalls someone shortly after he walks under a ladder, or breaks a mirror, or has a black cat cross his path, and judges that even to be responsible for the misfortune.
錯(cuò)誤原因的謬誤發(fā)生在忽略巧合的發(fā)生涩馆。它包含了一個(gè)想法行施，“如果B發(fā)生在A之后，A必然已經(jīng)引起B(yǎng)”魂那。這個(gè)錯(cuò)誤無(wú)疑是大多數(shù)迷信的基礎(chǔ)蛾号。在梯子下面走，打破鏡子涯雅，或者有一只黑貓穿過(guò)他的道路后不久鲜结，不幸就會(huì)降臨在這個(gè)人身上，他甚至認(rèn)為活逆，即使是對(duì)這個(gè)不幸也要負(fù)責(zé)精刷。
Sam is in the habit of arriving late to English class. Yesterday the professor told him that the next time he was tardy, he would be refused admission. Today Sam got a composition back with a grade of D. He reasons the professor gave him a low grade out of anger over Sam's lateness. Sam has committed the fallacy of false cause. Maybe the professor did lower the grade for that reason, maybe not. Without additional evidence, Sam should withhold judgment.
薩姆習(xí)慣遲到英語(yǔ)課。昨天教授告訴他蔗候，下次他遲到時(shí)怒允，他會(huì)被拒絕入場(chǎng)。今天薩姆得到了一個(gè)D的分?jǐn)?shù)锈遥。他的理由是教授對(duì)薩姆的遲到感到憤怒纫事。薩姆犯了錯(cuò)誤原因的謬誤。也許教授確實(shí)因?yàn)檫@個(gè)原因降低了成績(jī)迷殿，也可能不是儿礼。沒(méi)有額外的證據(jù)，薩姆應(yīng)該拒絕判斷庆寺。
STRAW MAN
偷換概念
As the term implies, straw man is an argument without substance. This fallacy consists of pretending one's adversary has said something false and then proceeding to demonstrate that it is false. Suppose you are debating whether legislation should be enacted restricting the sale of assault weapons. You state that you support such legislation because assault weapons are designed, not for hunting or even for self-defense but for killing people, often indiscriminately. Your opponent responds, "So you believe you should decide what weapons are acceptable and what weapons aren't. It's exactly this kind of arrogance by self-appointed social reformers that everyone who lives the constitutions should fear."
正如這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)所暗示的那樣蚊夫，偷換概念是沒(méi)有實(shí)質(zhì)意義的論點(diǎn)。這種謬誤包括假裝自己的對(duì)手說(shuō)了些虛假的事懦尝，然后繼續(xù)證明它是錯(cuò)誤的知纷。假設(shè)您正在討論是否應(yīng)該制定限制出售攻擊性武器的立法。你聲明你支持這樣的立法陵霉，因?yàn)橥粨粑淦鞯脑O(shè)計(jì)不是為了狩獵琅轧，也不是為了自衛(wèi)，而是為了殺人踊挠，通常是不分青紅皂白的殺人乍桂。你的對(duì)手回答說(shuō)：“所以你認(rèn)為你應(yīng)該決定哪些武器可以接受冲杀，什么武器不可以被接受，正是這種自命不凡的社會(huì)改革者的這種傲慢態(tài)度睹酌，所有生活在憲法中的人都應(yīng)該害怕权谁。”
Your opponent has committed the straw man fallacy. Perhaps she did so consciously to put you on the defensive. (The best response is to point out what she has done:"First you put irresponsible words in my mouth and then you say I'm irresponsible. I'd prefer to hear your reaction to what I really said."
你的對(duì)手犯了偷換概念的謬誤憋沿。也許她有意識(shí)地讓你處于防守狀態(tài)旺芽。（最好的回答是指出她所做的一切：“首先你把不負(fù)責(zé)任的話語(yǔ)放在我的嘴里，然后你說(shuō)我是不負(fù)責(zé)任的辐啄。我更想聽(tīng)聽(tīng)你對(duì)我說(shuō)的話的反應(yīng)采章。”
IRRATIONAL APPEALS
非理性的上訴
Irrational appeals urge us to accept ideas at face value or on some other basis than reasonableness. They are considered logical fallacies because they say, in effect, "You don't have to think about this matter – there is no danger of error here." And that is itself, a serious error. The danger of error always exists, and thinking critically is the best way to minimize that danger.
結(jié)論無(wú)據(jù)非理性的上訴因?yàn)樗麄儗?shí)際上說(shuō)：“你不必考慮這個(gè)問(wèn)題 - 這里肯定沒(méi)有錯(cuò)誤的危險(xiǎn)壶辜∶踔郏”?而這本身就是一個(gè)嚴(yán)重的錯(cuò)誤。錯(cuò)誤的危險(xiǎn)總是存在砸民，批判性思考是最大限度地減少這種危險(xiǎn)的最佳方式图谷。
Irrational appeals usually take one of the following forms:
非理性的上訴通常采取以下形式之一：
Appeal to emotion. this appeal urges the uncritical acceptance of strong feelings; for example, love of family or country, fear, resentment, guilt.
呼吁情感?。這一呼吁敦促不加批判地接受強(qiáng)烈的感情;?例如阱洪，對(duì)家庭或國(guó)家的愛(ài)，恐懼菠镇，怨恨冗荸，內(nèi)疚±＃【打感情牌】
Appeal to Tradition or Faith.This appeal urges maintaining past customs or beliefs not because they are applicable to the present situation, but merely because they have always been maintained.
呼吁傳統(tǒng)或信仰蚌本。?這一呼吁敦促維護(hù)過(guò)去的習(xí)俗或信仰，并非因?yàn)樗鼈冞m用于目前的情況隘梨，而僅僅是因?yàn)樗鼈円恢钡玫骄S護(hù)程癌。【說(shuō)民俗】
Appeal to Moderation. An appeal to moderation urges a moderate view not because it is the most reasonable view, but merely because it is inoffensive to anyone.
呼吁適度?轴猎。對(duì)溫和的呼吁促使溫和的觀點(diǎn)不是因?yàn)樗亲詈侠淼挠^點(diǎn)嵌莉，而僅僅是因?yàn)樗鼘?duì)任何人都是無(wú)害的∧聿保【尋求和解調(diào)解】
Appeal to Authority. This appeal urges the unquestioning acceptance of an authority's view. The authority may be a person, a book or document, or an agency (such as the Supreme Court).
呼吁管理局锐峭。?這一呼吁敦促毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)地會(huì)導(dǎo)致接受一個(gè)當(dāng)局的觀點(diǎn)。當(dāng)局可能是一個(gè)人可婶，一本書(shū)或文件沿癞，或一個(gè)機(jī)構(gòu)（如最高法院）∶剩【尋求專(zhuān)家意見(jiàn)】
Appeal to Common Sense. This appeal is often accompanied by such phrases as "everyone knows that" "no reasonable person would deny that," and "its common sense." (Many ideas that were at one time accepted as common sense– such as sacrificing young virgins to ensure a good harvest and abandoning deformed babies to die – are now recognized as uncommon nonsense or worse.)
呼吁常識(shí)?椎扬。這種訴求通常伴隨著“每個(gè)人都知道”，“沒(méi)有合理的人會(huì)否認(rèn)這一點(diǎn)”，“這是常識(shí)”等短語(yǔ)蚕涤。（許多曾經(jīng)被認(rèn)為是常識(shí)的想法 - 比如犧牲年輕的處女以確保豐收和放棄畸形的嬰兒讓其死亡 - 現(xiàn)在被認(rèn)為是不是常識(shí)或更糟的筐赔。）
Appeals to emotion, tradition, faith, moderation, authority, or common sense are not necessarily irrational. In many cases they are rational – that is, they invite, rather than discourage, critical thinking. Be sure to distinguish between rational and irrational appeals whenever you evaluate issues.
對(duì)情感，傳統(tǒng)钻趋，信仰川陆，節(jié)制，權(quán)威或常識(shí)的訴求并不一定非理性蛮位。在很多情況下较沪，他們都是理性的 - 也就是說(shuō)，他們邀請(qǐng)而不是阻止批判性思維失仁。無(wú)論何時(shí)評(píng)估問(wèn)題尸曼，都一定要區(qū)分理性和非理性的訴求。
IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES
識(shí)別邏輯謬誤
Its tempting to think that if we find errors, we automatically disprove the conclusion. That's not so. The conclusion may be reasonable in spite of the errors. Whenever you examine an issue remember that, as important as it is to recognize and avoid errors, your main objective is to find the most reasonable, supportable view.
很容易想到萄焦，如果我們發(fā)現(xiàn)錯(cuò)誤控轿，我們會(huì)自動(dòng)反駁結(jié)論。事實(shí)并非如此拂封。盡管有錯(cuò)誤茬射，結(jié)論可能是合理的。每當(dāng)你檢查一個(gè)問(wèn)題時(shí)冒签，要記住在抛，識(shí)別和避免錯(cuò)誤同樣重要，你的主要目標(biāo)是找到最合理萧恕，可支持的觀點(diǎn)刚梭。
APPLICATIONS
應(yīng)用
Examine each of the following arguments carefully. If you are uninformed about the issue it addresses, do some research. Then decide which view of the issue is most reasonable. Be alert for logical fallacies in the arguments themselves and avoid committing fallacies in your reasoning.
仔細(xì)檢查以下每個(gè)爭(zhēng)論。如果你對(duì)它所解決的問(wèn)題不了解票唆，請(qǐng)做一些研究朴读。然后決定哪個(gè)觀點(diǎn)是最合理的。警惕論證本身的邏輯謬誤走趋，避免在推理中犯謬論衅金。
I never vote in national elections. I figure that my vote will be canceled by someone else's. Besides, all politicians are going to rob the public so it doesn't matter who get selected.
我從未在全國(guó)大選中投票。我認(rèn)為我的投票將被其他人取消簿煌。此外典挑，所有的政客都會(huì)賄選公眾，所以誰(shuí)當(dāng)選都無(wú)關(guān)緊要啦吧。
Dog fighting is a sport in which two specially trained dogs (often, but not always, pit bull terriers) do combat until one is killed or badly maimed. It is illegal in most states. But should it be? I say no. if I own a dog, it's my property and I should be able to do whatever I wish with it.
斗狗是一種運(yùn)動(dòng)您觉，兩名受過(guò)專(zhuān)門(mén)訓(xùn)練的狗（通常但不總是斗牛犬）會(huì)一直戰(zhàn)斗直至死亡或致殘。這在大多數(shù)州都是非法的授滓。但是琳水，它是非法的么肆糕？我說(shuō)不是。如果我擁有一只狗在孝，這是我的財(cái)產(chǎn)诚啃，我應(yīng)該可以隨心所欲地做任何事情。
Affirmative action originated as system to overcome the effects of years of prejudice against minorities. But it has created discrimination against the majority. I favor eliminating affirmative action requirements and returning to the old system. For all its imperfections, it's far better than what we have now.
平權(quán)行動(dòng)起源于一種多年來(lái)克服對(duì)少數(shù)群體的偏見(jiàn)影響的制度私沮。但它造成了對(duì)大多數(shù)人的歧視始赎。我贊成消除平權(quán)行動(dòng)要求并回到舊系統(tǒng)。盡管它的所有不完善之處都遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)優(yōu)于現(xiàn)在的狀況仔燕。
Whenever Americans buy automobiles, clothing, and electronic equipment from other countries, they undermine American business and hurt American workers. Patriotism demands that we refrain from buying from foreign competitors even when their prices are lower and their quality is higher.
每當(dāng)美國(guó)人購(gòu)買(mǎi)來(lái)自其他國(guó)家的汽車(chē)造垛，服裝和電子設(shè)備時(shí)，他們就會(huì)破壞美國(guó)企業(yè)并傷害美國(guó)工人晰搀。愛(ài)國(guó)主義要求我們不要從外國(guó)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手那里購(gòu)買(mǎi)五辽，即使它們的價(jià)格較低，質(zhì)量較高外恕。
It's absurd to believe in life after death because no one has ever returned from the grave.
相信死后的生活是荒謬的杆逗，因?yàn)闆](méi)有人從墳?zāi)怪谢貋?lái)。
?Women in the military should be required to undergo the same physical training men do. They should also not be exempted from frontline duty.
應(yīng)該要求軍人中的女性接受與男性同樣的體能訓(xùn)練鳞疲。他們也不應(yīng)免于前線工作罪郊。
In 1982, New York State SocialServices officials directed local adoption agencies not to reject applicants solely because they are homosexual or have a history of alcoholism or drug abuse, a criminal record, a dependency on welfare, or a severe emotional or physical handicap.
1982年，紐約州社會(huì)服務(wù)部門(mén)的官員指示地方收養(yǎng)機(jī)構(gòu)不要僅因?yàn)樗麄兪峭詰倩蛴行锞苹蛭臼飞星ⅲ缸镉涗浥帕洌瑢?duì)福利的依賴或嚴(yán)重的情緒或身體障礙而拒絕申請(qǐng)人。
Every knowledgeable person agrees that the nation's court system is seriously bogged down with cases and that something must be done to alleviate that condition. The best way to do so, I am convinced, is to dispense with the outdated concept of "innocent until proven guilty" and make all those charged with a crime prove their innocence.
每個(gè)知識(shí)淵博的人都同意翎朱，國(guó)家的法院系統(tǒng)嚴(yán)重陷于積案中，必須采取一些措施來(lái)緩解這種狀況尺铣。我相信拴曲，這樣做的最好辦法是免除“無(wú)罪推定”的過(guò)時(shí)概念，并讓所有被控犯有罪的人證明自己是清白的凛忿。
It's ironic that during the very time when Pete Rose was being castigated for his alleged gambling on sports events (late spring, 1989), newspapers were filled with stories about Illinois and Pennsylvania lotteries and their respective $62.5 and $115 million jackpots. Millions of people were placing bets on those lotteries and dozens of other state lotteries, and that was regarded as perfectly legitimate. And yet a great baseball star was being threatened with disgrace and expulsion from the game he loved. The whole fiasco can be explained only in terms of monumental ignorance or hypocrisy.
具有諷刺意味的是澈灼，在皮特羅斯因涉嫌體育賽事而賭博的時(shí)刻（1989年春末），報(bào)紙上充斥著有關(guān)伊利諾伊州和賓夕法尼亞州彩票以及他們各自的62.5美元和1.15億美元彩票頭獎(jiǎng)的故事店溢。數(shù)百萬(wàn)人正在對(duì)這些彩票進(jìn)行押注叁熔，還有數(shù)十個(gè)其他州彩票，這被認(rèn)為是完全合法的床牧。然而荣回，一位偉大的棒球明星正在受到他所愛(ài)的游戲的恥辱和驅(qū)逐的威脅。整個(gè)慘敗只能用巨大的無(wú)知或虛偽來(lái)解釋戈咳。
For the last few decades, most Americans have swallowed the liberal line that everyone deserves a college education. As a result, college courses have been watered down and the college degree has been rendered meaningless. It's high time we adopt a more realistic view. College should be reserved for those who have not only taken a demanding high school program but have excelled in it.
在過(guò)去的幾十年里心软，大多數(shù)美國(guó)人都吞下了自由派壕吹，每個(gè)人都應(yīng)該接受大學(xué)教育。結(jié)果删铃，大學(xué)課程已被淡化耳贬，大學(xué)學(xué)位已變得毫無(wú)意義。現(xiàn)在是我們采取更現(xiàn)實(shí)的觀點(diǎn)的時(shí)候了猎唁。學(xué)院應(yīng)該保留給那些不僅要求高中要求而且要求優(yōu)秀的學(xué)生咒劲。
Group discussion exercise: Select one of the cases you analyzed inapplication 1 and discuss it with two or three of your classmates. Try to reach a consensus, but be careful to avoid committing logical fallacies. Be prepared to present your idea(s) to the class.
小組討論練習(xí)：選擇您在應(yīng)用1中分析的一個(gè)案例，并與兩個(gè)或三個(gè)同學(xué)討論诫隅。盡量達(dá)成共識(shí)腐魂，但要小心避免犯邏輯謬誤。準(zhǔn)備好向班級(jí)介紹你的想法阎肝。
這個(gè)系列是對(duì)超越感覺(jué)：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻譯練習(xí)挤渔，如果覺(jué)得有幫助可以點(diǎn)鏈接購(gòu)買(mǎi)第九版中文，英文原版在這里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英語(yǔ)）
