19 Conducting Inquiry進行調(diào)查

這一部分講解的是如何對問題進行檢索研究球榆，這一塊的內(nèi)容其實是每一個人都應該具備的基本能力，但是好像我們教育里并沒有安排這樣的課程叠荠。其實無論任何專業(yè)拷泽，無論是否是為了專業(yè)研究想括，知道去哪里查找信息鉴腻，知道如何證明自己的推論，這是一項基本功惧浴。

讀完這部分我問了我?guī)讉€問題存和，我從來沒有這么系統(tǒng)性的研究一個問題吧

我知道在我們國家有哪些可供查詢的百科全書么？【百度不算】

我知道哪里有可供查詢的期刊雜志類的么衷旅？【在圖書館里你能找到么】

對一個問題你能精確的或者盡可能全面的列出其涉獵的行業(yè)分類么捐腿？

答案都是no

好可悲啊

那我們得到的知識都是從哪里來的呢？根據(jù)什么來判斷其權(quán)威性和可信性呢柿顶？

Inquiry is seeking answers to questions, investigating, gathering evidence to help us draw conclusions. It enables us to get beyond our first impressions, feelings, preconceived notions, and personal preferences.

調(diào)查是尋求問題的答案茄袖，調(diào)查，收集證據(jù)來幫助我們得出結(jié)論嘁锯。它使我們能夠超越我們的第一印象宪祥，感受，先入為主的觀念和個人喜好家乘。

There are two basic kinds of inquiry – inquiry into facts and inquiry into opinions. Opinions, remember, can be informed or uninformed. Except in cases where the purpose of our inquiry demands that both varieties of opinion be gathered, we should be more interested in informed opinion.

有兩種基本的調(diào)查方式 - 調(diào)查事實和調(diào)查意見寂纪。記住，意見可以被告知或不知情娇豫。除了我們調(diào)查的目的要求收集各種意見的情況外玻孟，我們應該對知情意見更感興趣。

Often we will need to inquire into both facts and opinions. How much inquiry into each is needed will, of course, vary from situation to situation. If the specific issue were"Which U.S. income group is most inequitably treated by the present federal tax laws?" we would have to examine the tax laws to determine what they specify (fact) and consult the tax experts for their interpretations of the more complicated aspects of the laws (informed opinion). But to determine the degree of inequity we would have to know the amount of income necessary to provide living essentials (food, shelter, and clothing). So we would also have to examine cost of living statistics (fact) and consult economists about more subtle factors affecting the various income groups (informed opinion).

我們經(jīng)常需要查詢事實和意見扑馁。當然涯呻，每種情況下需要對每種情況進行多少調(diào)查。如果具體問題是“現(xiàn)行聯(lián)邦稅法對哪一個美國收入組別最不公平”腻要？我們必須檢查稅法以確定他們指定的?事實?（事實）复罐，并咨詢稅務專家對法律更復雜的方面（?知情意見?）的解釋。但為了確定不公平的程度雄家，我們必須知道提供生活必需品（食物效诅，住所和衣服）所需的收入。因此趟济，我們還必須檢查生活費用統(tǒng)計（?事實?）乱投，并咨詢經(jīng)濟學家關(guān)于影響各種收入群體的更微妙因素（?知情意見?）。

SOME INQUIRY RESULT SIN CONCLUSIVE

一些調(diào)查結(jié)果不可信

Because the state of human knowledge is imperfect, not every question is answerable when it is asked. Some issues remain unsolved for years, even centuries. Before we traveled into outer space, no one knew exactly what the effects of weightlessness on the human body would be. Many respected doctors argued that the rapid acceleration at blast-off would increase an astronaut's heartbeat to a fatal level. (There was strong medical evidence to support this view.) Others believed that weightlessness would cause vital organs to malfunction and a trophy. Both dire predictions proved mistaken, but any inquiry into the issue undertaken before the first successful launch would necessarily have been incomplete.

由于人類知識的狀態(tài)并不完美顷编，因此在問及時并不是每個問題都可以回答戚炫。多年來甚至幾個世紀以來，一些問題仍未解決媳纬。在我們進入外太空之前双肤，沒有人確切知道失重對人體的影響是什么施掏。許多受人尊敬的醫(yī)生認為，發(fā)射的迅速加速會使宇航員的心跳增加到致命的水平茅糜。（有強烈的醫(yī)學證據(jù)支持這種觀點七芭。）其他人則認為失重會導致重要器官發(fā)生功能障礙和萎縮。這兩個可怕的預測都被證明是錯誤的蔑赘，但在第一次成功發(fā)射之前對這個問題的任何調(diào)查都是不完整的狸驳。

Which mountain in the Sinai desert did Moses really climb? The Bible gives it a name (actually two names), but scholars differ on where it is located. Strong claims are advanced for three different mountains in three countries. No conclusive answer has been reached despite over 3,000 years of inquiry.

西奈沙漠中的哪座山摩西真的爬過了？圣經(jīng)給它一個名字（實際上是兩個名字）缩赛，但是學者在它的位置上有所不同锌历。在三個國家的三座不同的山上，強烈的要求得到推進峦筒。盡管進行了3 000多年的調(diào)查究西，但尚未得出確鑿的答案。

Some questions are even more resistant to inquiry – for example, the question "Are there intelligent life forms in our solar system or other systems?" Our sun is one of billion of stars. The farthest ones we have discovered are believed to be nine billion light years away. (In miles, that's 54 followed by 21 zeroes.)It's conceivable that any inquiry into this question made in the next million years will be inconclusive. Perhaps the answer will never be known.

有些問題甚至更難以查詢 - 例如物喷，“我們的太陽系或其他系統(tǒng)中是否有智能生命形式卤材？”這個問題。我們的太陽是十億顆恒星之一峦失。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)的最遠的被認為距離90億光年遠扇丛。（以英里為單位，54以及21零）尉辑》可以想象，在未來的幾百萬年里對這個問題的任何調(diào)查都是不確定的隧魄。也許答案永遠不會被人知道卓练。

However resistant to solution a question may be, though, inquiry is still useful. Even if it yields no more than the untestable opinions of experts, those opinions are more valuable than the casual speculations of the uninformed. So we shouldn't be intimidated by difficult issues. We should merely be realistic about how complete and final our answers are likely to be.

盡管如此，對解決方案的抵制仍然是一個問題购啄，但查詢?nèi)匀挥杏媒笃蟆＜词顾a(chǎn)生的不過?是專家的不可檢測的?意見，這些意見也比不知情的人的偶然猜測更有價值狮含。所以我們不應該被困難的問題嚇倒顽悼。對于我們的答案可能會有多完整和最終結(jié)果，我們應該是現(xiàn)實的几迄。

WHERE TO LOOK FOR INFORMATION

去哪里找信息

Whenever possible, we should consult our own experience and observation. Even if what has happened to us or we have seen happen to others pertains only indirectly to the issue or touches just one aspect of it, it should not be overlooked. Our observation of how people use stereotypes or face-saving maneuvers in everyday situations may help us evaluate a political candidate's speech or a party's platform. Our experience with conformity in ourselves and our friends can provide us with an insight into the effects of TV programming on the public.Being alert to the relevance of our experience to the issue we are investigating not only can give us valuable ideas; it can also suggest important questions. Thus it can provide our inquiry with better direction.

只要有可能蔚龙，我們應該咨詢我們自己的經(jīng)驗和觀察。即使發(fā)生在我們身上或我們看到發(fā)生在他人身上的事情僅僅是間接地涉及到這個問題映胁，或者只涉及其中的一個方面木羹，也不應該被忽視。我們觀察人們在日常情況下如何使用刻板印象或愛面子行為可能有助于我們評估政治候選人的言論或政黨的平臺屿愚。我們對自己和朋友的整合體驗可以讓我們深入了解電視節(jié)目對公眾的影響汇跨。注意我們的經(jīng)驗與我們正在調(diào)查的問題的相關(guān)性不僅可以給我們提供寶貴的想法;它也可以提出重要的問題务荆。因此它可以為我們提供更好的方向妆距。

Of course, our own experience and observation will seldom be adequate by itself, especially on complex and controversial matters. We will need to consult other sources. What follows is a brief guide to what to look for and where to find it.

當然穷遂，我們自己的經(jīng)驗和觀察本身很少是足夠的，特別是在復雜和有爭議的問題上娱据。我們需要咨詢其他來源蚪黑。接下來是一個簡要的指南，指導您尋找什么以及在哪里找到它中剩。

Background

背景信息

on the Issue.Think of several general headings under which the issue might be classified. For example, if the issue concerned criminal investigation, the headings might be "crime,""criminology," "police," and one or more specific kinds of crime, such as "burglary." Then look up those headings in the index volume of a good general encyclopedia, such as Encyclopedia Americana or Encyclopedia Britannica. (Americana has a separate index volume.Britannica is divided into two sets of books:the macropaediaset, which contains detailed articles on a limited number of subjects, and the micropaediaset, which contains brief articles and cross-references on a large number of subjects.) The articles you will find there are written by authorities in the various fields. At the end of each article is a list of books and other articles you can consult for a fuller or more specialized treatment of the issue.

關(guān)于問題的背景忌穿。?想想問題可能被分類的幾個一般標題。例如结啼，如果問題涉及刑事調(diào)查掠剑，標題可能是“犯罪”，“犯罪學”郊愧，“警察”以及一種或多種特定類型的犯罪朴译，例如“盜竊”。然后在?一本好的通用百科全書的索引卷?中?查找這些標題属铁，例如美國百科全書或不列顛百科全書眠寿。 （美國有一個單獨的索引量Britannica?分為兩套書：其中包含有限數(shù)量的主題的詳細文章，?micropaediaset焦蘑，其中包含有關(guān)大量主題的簡短文章和交叉參考盯拱。）您將在那里找到由各個領(lǐng)域的權(quán)威機構(gòu)撰寫的文章。在每篇文章的結(jié)尾處列出了一些書籍和其他文章例嘱，您可以參考這些書籍以獲得更全面或更專業(yè)的問題處理狡逢。

In addition to the general encyclopedias, there are numerous special ones: encyclopedias of art,business, history, literature, philosophy, music, science, education, social science, and many more. Most of these contain not only discussions of the history of the field but also titles of other books and articles you may find helpful.(Remember that background reading, though a helpful start toward analyzing an issue, is never an acceptable substitute for analysis. You instructor will expect more from you than background

information.)

除了一般的百科全書，還有許多特殊的百科全書：藝術(shù)拼卵，商業(yè)甚侣，歷史，文學间学，哲學殷费，音樂，科學低葫，教育详羡，社會科學等等的百科全書。其中大部分內(nèi)容不僅包含對該領(lǐng)域歷史的討論嘿悬，還包含可能對您有幫助的其他書籍和文章的標題实柠。?（請記住，背景閱讀雖然是分析問題的一個有用的開端善涨，但它永遠不是分析的可接受替代品窒盐，您的指導老師對您的期望會超過背景信息草则。）

Facts and statistics. ?Almanacs are treasuries of information,published yearly, on a myriad of subjects. There are a number of good ones.World Almanac is available from 1868.Information Please Almanac, The New York Times Encyclopedic Almanac, and Reader's Digest Almanac are more recent publications.Because any almanac is arranged very compactly for efficient use, it is important to study the index before using it.

事實和統(tǒng)計。?年鑒是每年出版的關(guān)于眾多主題的資訊庫蟹漓。有很多好的炕横。?世界歷書?可從1868年獲取。?信息請查閱年鑒葡粒，紐約時報百科全書?和?讀者文摘年鑒?是最近的出版物份殿。由于任何年歷排列得非常緊湊以便高效使用，因此在使用之前研究索引非常重要嗽交。

Information about people. A number of biographical dictionaries and encyclopedias are available. Two of the most helpful ones are Current Biography: Who's News and Why and Webster's Biographical Dictionary.

關(guān)于人的信息?卿嘲。一些傳記字典和百科全書可用。其中兩個最有用的是當代傳記：?誰的新聞和為什么?和?韋伯斯特的傳記字典夫壁。

Articles in newspapers, magazines, and journals. The most basic index to articles is the Reader's Guide to Periodical

Literature. It lists articles form over one hundred magazines by subject and by author. As with an encyclopedia, you should begin by thinking of the various headings under which the issue might be classified. Then select the volume for the appropriate years (more current years are listed in unbound pamphlet form), and look up those headings. The entries will list the title and author of the article and the name and issue of the magazine it appeared in.

報紙拾枣，雜志和期刊上的文章?。文章的最基本索引是?期刊文獻讀者指南?盒让。它按主題和作者列出超過一百本雜志的文章梅肤。與百科全書一樣，您應該首先考慮問題可能被分類的各個標題糯彬。然后選擇相應年份的卷（更多當前年份以未綁定的小冊子形式列出）凭语，然后查找這些標題。這些條目將列出文章的標題和作者以及它出現(xiàn)在雜志中的名稱和問題撩扒。

Two other important indexes are the Social Science Index and the?Humanities Index.(Before 1965 these indexes appeared together under the title international Index.) they are similar to Reader's Guide but cover scholarly and professional magazines and journals. Other helpful indexes include the New York Times Index, which covers events reported in that newspaper; the Essay and General Literature Index;the General Science Index; the Education Index; and United States Government Publications: Monthly Catalog.

其他兩個重要指標是?社會科學指數(shù)?和?人文指數(shù)?似扔。 （在1965年以前，這些指標以?國際指數(shù)?的名稱一起出現(xiàn)）搓谆，它們與讀者指南類似炒辉，但涵蓋了學術(shù)和專業(yè)雜志和期刊。其他有用的指標包括?紐約時報指數(shù)?泉手，該?指數(shù)涵蓋該報報道的事件;該論文和一般文學指數(shù);?在?普通科學指標?;在?教育指數(shù)?;和?美國政府刊物：每月目錄黔寇。

After you locate the article and read it, be sure to check the reader response in the letters-to-the-editor section of subsequent issues. Most newspapers and magazines have a "letters" section, and it will often provide reaction by informed readers supporting or challenging the ideas in the article. In weekly magazines, responses usually appear two issues after the article; in fortnightlies and monthlies, one issue later.

找到文章并閱讀后，請務必在隨后的問題的編輯字母部分中查看讀者的回復斩萌。大多數(shù)報紙和雜志都有一個“信箱”部分缝裤，它通常會提供知情讀者的支持或挑戰(zhàn)文章中觀點的反應。在每周雜志中颊郎，回復通常在文章后面出現(xiàn)兩個問題;在每兩周和每月一次憋飞，稍后一個問題。

Books.In addition to the list of books provided in encyclopedias and those you find mentioned in the articles you read, you can consult your library's card or computer catalog, the key to the books available on its shelves. (One valuable source of information is college textbooks in fields related to the issue you are investigating.) Occasionally, if your library is small or if the issue you are investigating is obscure, the library holdings may be limited. In such cases, as in any situation where you are having difficulty finding information or using the reference books, ask your librarian for help.(Remember that librarians are professionals trained to solve the kinds of research problems you may experience.)

圖書姆吭。?除了在百科全書中提供的書籍列表以及您閱讀過的文章中提到的書籍榛做，您還可以查閱圖書館的卡片或計算機目錄，這是書架上可用書籍的關(guān)鍵。 （一個有價值的信息來源是與你正在調(diào)查的問題有關(guān)的領(lǐng)域的大學教科書检眯。）偶爾厘擂，如果你的圖書館很小，或者你正在調(diào)查的問題很模糊锰瘸，那么圖書館館藏可能是有限的刽严。在這種情況下，如果您在查找信息或使用參考書時遇到困難获茬，請向圖書管理員尋求幫助港庄。 （請記住倔既，圖書館員是受過專業(yè)訓練的專業(yè)人員恕曲，可以解決您可能遇到的各種研究問題。）

All of this may suggest long, monotonous, time-and-energy-consuming research like that required for a doctoral dissertation. But that is a misconception. With a little practice, it is possible to use all the references mentioned, quickly and efficiently. Even books needn't be waded through page by page to find something useful. In a few seconds you can turn to the index (usually at the end) and look for the several headings your issue might be found under, then turn to the appropriate pages and read just those pages. If the book has no index, you can turn to the table of contents, read the chapter tittles and decide which chapters seem most relevant, and then scan them.

所有這些都可能表明渤涌，博士論文需要長時間佩谣，單調(diào)，耗時和耗時的研究实蓬。但這是一種誤解茸俭。通過一些練習，可以快速有效地使用所有提及的參考資料安皱。即使是書本也不一定要通過一頁接一頁地找到有用的東西调鬓。幾秒鐘后，您可以轉(zhuǎn)向索引（通常在最后）酌伊，并查找可能在您的問題下找到的幾個標題腾窝，然后轉(zhuǎn)到相應的頁面并閱讀這些頁面。如果圖書沒有索引居砖，則可以轉(zhuǎn)到目錄虹脯，閱讀章節(jié)標題并確定哪些章節(jié)看起來最相關(guān)，然后瀏覽它們奏候。

HOW MUCH INQUIRY IS ENOUGH?

多少調(diào)查是足夠的

It would seem easy enough to decide when the inquiry is complete. More often than not, it is not easy at all. One insight can make a great difference. A single fact can upset a mountain of evidence. For example, in the late 1960s and early 1970s most social psychologists would probably have agreed that crowded living conditions are harmful to human beings. Numerous experiments seemed to have settle the matter. Then anthropologist Patricia Draper studied a southwest African treble of hunter-gatherers, the !Kung bushmen. Though their land offers ample space to spread out their settlements and huts, they crowd their dwelling together and often sit in tight groups, literally brushing against one another.Yet they have none of the medical conditions (such as high blood pressure)usually associated with crowding. This one fact has caused reexamination of ascientific truism.

查詢完成的時間似乎很容易循集。往往不是，它根本不容易蔗草。一個見解可以產(chǎn)生很大的不同咒彤。一個事實可能會打亂一大堆證據(jù)。例如咒精，在20世紀60年代末和70年代初镶柱，大多數(shù)社會心理學家可能會認為擁擠的生活條件對人類是有害的。許多實驗似乎已經(jīng)解決了這個問題狠轻。然后人類學家派翠西亞·德雷珀（Patricia Draper）研究了非洲西南部的三個狩獵采集者奸例！盡管他們的土地提供了很多空間來散布他們的定居點和小屋，但他們將他們的住所擠在一起，并經(jīng)常坐在緊密的小組中查吊，從字面上彼此擦肩而過谐区。然而他們沒有任何通常與擁擠有關(guān)的醫(yī)療狀況（例如高血壓）。這一事實已經(jīng)引起了對科學真理論的重新審視逻卖。

How much inquiry is enough? There is no easy answer. It depends entirely on the issue. In some cases, a brief inquiry is enough? There is no easy answer. It depends entirely on the issue. In some cases, a brief inquiry will be more than adequate. In others, an exhaustive inquiry will be incomplete. However, though no absolute statement may be made about the amount of inquiry required, you can be reasonably sure your inquiries are complete when you have made a thorough and careful effort to learn the relevant facts and to consult informed opinion in all fields of study that have a direct bearing on the specific issue you are analyzing. The number of fields to be researched will, of course, vary with the nature of the issue. Here, for example, is a list of the fields that have a direct bearing on three specific issues we identified in the previous chapter.

多少查詢就夠了宋列？沒有簡單的答案。這完全取決于這個問題评也。在某些情況下炼杖，簡短的詢問就足夠了？沒有簡單的答案盗迟。這完全取決于這個問題坤邪。在某些情況下，簡短的調(diào)查將是綽綽有余的罚缕。在其他情況下艇纺，詳盡的調(diào)查將不完整。然而邮弹，雖然沒有絕對的聲明可以提出所需的調(diào)查數(shù)量黔衡，但您可以合理確信您的調(diào)查已經(jīng)完成，因為您在仔細研究相關(guān)事實并咨詢所有研究領(lǐng)域的意見后腌乡，對你正在分析的具體問題有直接影響盟劫。當然，研究領(lǐng)域的數(shù)量將隨著問題的性質(zhì)而變化与纽。在這里侣签，例如，是與我們在前一章中確定的三個具體問題有直接關(guān)系的領(lǐng)域清單渣锦。

Specific Issue:

具體問題

At what point, if any during a pregnancy does the fetus become a human being?

在什么時候硝岗，如果懷孕期間胎兒是否成為人類？?

Fields with Direct Bearing: ?Biology, Law, Ethics, Metaphysic, Psychology

直接影響領(lǐng)域：?生物學袋毙，法律型檀，倫理學，形而上學听盖，心理學

Specific Issue:

具體問題：

Exactly what effect does a punch have on the human body, particularly the brain? What is the cumulative effect of the punches received during ten or fifteen rounds of boxing? During a career?

一拳對人體特別是大腦有什么影響胀溺？在十輪或十五輪拳擊中獲得的拳擊的累積效應是什么？在職業(yè)生涯中皆看？

Fields with Direct Bearing: ?Anatomy and Physiology, Medicine, Psychology

直接承擔的領(lǐng)域：?解剖學和生理學仓坞，醫(yī)學，心理學

Specific Issue:

具體問題：

Is it reasonable or fair to hold people responsible for their actions before they are old enough to understand their moral and legal quality? At what age does a person reach such understanding?

在他們年齡足以了解他們的道德和法律質(zhì)量之前腰吟，讓他們對自己的行為負責是否合理或公平无埃？一個人到了什么年齡才能達到這樣的理解徙瓶？?

Fields with Direct Bearing: ?Education, Psychology, Medicine, Ethics, Law

直接影響領(lǐng)域：?教育，心理學嫉称，醫(yī)學侦镇，倫理學，法學

A special problem frequently arises with an inquiry into opinion. When we have found one or two respected thinkers who agree with what we believe or want to believe, we are inclined to feel satisfied. "Case closed," we're tempted to say;"this is the answer." Precisely at that moment we need to be especially cautious. If the issue is controversial, we should remind ourselves that a controversial issue, by definition, is one on which informed, careful thinkers may disagree, on which there is something reasonable to say for bothsides.

對意見進行調(diào)查時經(jīng)常會遇到一個特殊問題织阅。當我們發(fā)現(xiàn)一兩位尊敬的思想家同意我們相信或想要相信的東西時壳繁，我們傾向于感到滿意±竺蓿“案子結(jié)束了闹炉，”我們很想說;?“這是答案∪笥＃”?就在那一刻渣触，我們需要特別謹慎。如果這個問題存在爭議祥国，我們應該提醒自己昵观，根據(jù)定義晾腔，一個有爭議的問題就是知情的舌稀，謹慎的思想家可能會不同意，對此雙方都有合理的說法灼擂。

It's worth remembering, too, that no evidence is perfect, and even the best is seldom beyond questioning. Appearances can deceive, some facts can remain undiscovered, and otherwise enlightened opinions can be limited in perspective.

值得記住的是壁查，沒有證據(jù)是完美的，即使是最好的證據(jù)也很少被質(zhì)疑剔应。出現(xiàn)可以欺騙睡腿，一些事實可能保持未被發(fā)現(xiàn)，否則開明的觀點可能會受到限制峻贮。

APPLICATIONS

應用

Chose one of the specific issues you clarified in application 1 or 2 of Chapter 18. conduct your inquiry into this issue in the manner explained in this chapter. Take careful notes. (The applications in the next chapter will build on this one.)

選擇你在第18章的應用1或2中闡明的具體問題之一席怪。按照本章所述的方式對這個問題進行調(diào)查。仔細記錄纤控。（下一章中的應用程序?qū)⒁源藶榛A(chǔ)挂捻。）

Choose one of the specific issues presented in Chapter 18 in the discussion of abortion, boxing, or juvenile crime. Conduct your inquiry into this issue in the manner explained in this chapter. Take careful notes. (The applications in the next chapter will build on this one.)

在討論墮胎，拳擊或青少年犯罪時船万，選擇第18章中提出的具體問題之一刻撒。按照本章所述的方式對此問題進行調(diào)查。仔細記錄耿导。（下一章中的應用將以此為基礎(chǔ)声怔。）

這個系列是對超越感覺：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻譯練習，如果覺得有幫助可以點鏈接購買第九版中文舱呻，英文原版在這里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英語）