The Influence of Psychology
The social and psychological theories of our time also have an impact on our beliefs.Before the past few decades, people were urged to be self-disciplined,self-critical, and self-effacing. They were urged to practice self-denial,to aspire to self-knowledge, to behave in a manner that ensured they maintained self-respect. Self-centeredness was considered a vice."Hard work," they were told," leades to achievement,and that in turn produces satisfaction and self-confidence." By and large,our grandparents internalized those teachings.When they honored them in their behavior,they felt proud;when they dishonored them,they felt ashamed.
Today the theories have been changed--indeed,almost exactly reversed.Self-esteem,which nineteenth-century satirist Ambrose Bierce defined as "an erroneous appraisement," is now considered an imperative.Self-centeredness has been transformed from vice into virtue,and people who devote their lives to helping others,people once considered heroic and saintlike,are now said tobe afflicted with"a disease to please."The formula for success and happiness begins with feeling good about ourselves.Students who do poorly in school,workers who don't measure up to the challenges of their jobs,substance abusers,lawbreakers--all are typically diagnosed as deficient in self-esteem.
In addition,just as our grandparents internalized the social and psychological theories of their time,so most contemporary Americans have internalized the message of self-esteem.We hear people speak of it over coffee;we hear it endlessly invoked on talk shows.Challenges to its precepts are ususlly met with disapproval.
But isn't the theory of self-esteem self-evident?No.A negative perception of our abilities will,of course,handicap our performance.Dr Maxwell Maltz explains the amazing results one educator had in improving the grades of schoolchildren by changing their self-images.The educator had observed that when the children saw themselves as stupid in a particular subject(or stupid in general),they unconsciously acted to confirm their self-images.They believed they were stupid,so they acted that way.Reasoning that it was their defeatist attitude rather than any lack of ability that was undermining their efforts,the educator set out to change their self-images.He found that when he accomplished that,they no longer behaved stupidly!Maltz concludes from this and other examples that our experiences can work a kind of self-hypnotism on us,suggesting a conclusion about ourselves and then urging us to make it come true.
Many proponents of self-esteem went far beyond Maltz's demonstration that self-confidence is an important ingredient in success.They claimed that there is no such thing as too much self-esteem.Research does not support that claim.For example,Martin Seligman,an eminent research psychology,cites significant evidence that,rather than solving personal and social problems,including depression,the modern emphasis on self-esteem causes them.
Maltz's research documents that lack of confidence impedes performance,a valuable insight.But such research doesn't explain why the more global concept of self-esteem has become to dominant.The answer to that question lies in the popularization of the work of humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow described what he called the hierarchy of human needs in the form of a pyramid,with physiological needs (food and drink) at the foundation.Above them,in ascending order, are safety needs,the need for belongingness and love,the need for esteem and approval,and aesthetic and cognitive needs(knowledge,understanding,etc.).At the pinnacle is the need for self-actualization,or fulfillment of our potential.In Maslow's view,the lower needs must be fulfilled before the higher ones.It's easy to see how the idea that self-esteem must precede achievement was derived from Maslow's theory.
Other theories might have been adopted,however.A notable one is Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl's,which was advanced at roughly the same time as Maslow's and was based on both Frankl's professional practice and his experiences in Hitler's concentration camps. Frankl argues that one human need is higher than self-actualization逻住； self-transcendence, the need to rise above narrow absorption with self.According to Frankl,"the primordial anthropological fact is that being human is being always directed,and pointing to something or someone other than oneself:to a meaning to fulfill or another human being to encounter,a cause to serve or a person to love."A person becomes fully human"by forgetting himself and giving himself,overlooking himself and focusing outward."
Making self-actualization (or happiness) the direct object of our pursuit,in Frankl's view,is ultimately self-defeating; such fulfillment can occur only as "the unintended effect of self-transcendence."The proper perspective on life,Frankl believes,is not what can give to us,but what it expects from us;life is daily--even hourly--questioning us, challenging us to accept "the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for[each of us]."
Finding meaning, according to Frankl's theory, involves "perceiving a possibility embedded in reality" and searching for challenging tasks "whose completion might to [one's] existence."But such perceiving and searching are frustrated by the focus on self:"As long as modern literature confines itself to,and contents itself with,self-expression-not to say self-exhibition-it reflects its authors' sense of futility and absurdity.What is more important,it also creates absurdity.This is understandable in light of the fact that meaning must be discovered,it cannot be invented.Sense cannot be created,but what may well be created is nonsense.
Whether we agree completely with Frankl,one thing is clear :Contemporary American culture would be markedly different if the emphasis over the past several decades had been on Frankl's theory rather than on the theories of Maslow and the other humanistic psychologists.All of us would have been affected--we can only imagine how profoundly--in our attitudes,values,and beliefs.
Translation:
自翻：
心理暗示：
社會理論和心理學(xué)理論在時間中對我們的信念也有一定影響容握。數(shù)十年前嘴办，人們被要求做到自律干茉，自我批評以及謙虛的品質(zhì)。他們被要求行為處事自我節(jié)制牛曹，追求有自知之明抖剿，要表現(xiàn)出一直自重的一種習(xí)慣。以自我為中心被視為缺點(diǎn)炒瘟〈挡海“努力工作”，人們被告知唧领，“實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)藻雌，然后依次獲得滿足和自信”≌陡觯總體來說胯杭，我們的祖輩接受并吸收這些教育。在他們的行為中獲得榮譽(yù)時受啥，他們感覺到自豪做个。當(dāng)他們未能做到時鸽心，他們感到羞愧。
如今這些理論已經(jīng)全部發(fā)生改變——的的確確的發(fā)生居暖，幾乎正好與過去相反顽频。19世紀(jì)的諷刺作家Ambrose Bierce將“自負(fù)”定義為“一種錯誤的評價”，人們現(xiàn)在也在認(rèn)真思考這個觀點(diǎn)太闺。以自我為中心也從缺點(diǎn)變成了優(yōu)點(diǎn)糯景，并且致力于幫助他人的那些人，過去被認(rèn)為是楷模省骂，是品德高尚之人蟀淮，現(xiàn)在卻苦惱于被說成是“一種討人歡喜的病”。那些成功和快樂的法則都開始變成我們自己的感受要好才行钞澳。在學(xué)校表現(xiàn)不好的學(xué)生怠惶，工作中無法勝任工作的工人，揮霍無度的人轧粟，違反法律的人——他們所有的人都是在自負(fù)方面有缺陷的代表策治。
此外，就像我們的祖輩將社會習(xí)性和心理習(xí)性在時間中的影響消化吸收兰吟，大量同時代的美國人也將自負(fù)這條信念消化吸收通惫。我們聽到人們在喝咖啡的時候談?wù)撍覀儾粩嗟穆牭饺藗冊趯υ捴姓{(diào)用這個詞揽祥。挑戰(zhàn)這條準(zhǔn)則通常都是碰到了不贊成的勢力讽膏。
但是自負(fù)的理論是不證自明的嗎？不是拄丰，關(guān)于我們能力消極的感受當(dāng)然會阻礙我們的執(zhí)行力府树。Maxwell Maltz教授研究得出一個神奇的結(jié)果，教育者可以通過改變學(xué)校學(xué)生的自我形象來提高學(xué)生的水平料按。教育者觀察到當(dāng)一個孩子在一個特殊的情景下認(rèn)為自己愚蠢（或者正常的情境下認(rèn)為自己愚蠢）奄侠，他們就會不知不覺在行動中認(rèn)同自己的這種自我形象。他們相信自己就是愚蠢的载矿，因此他們的行為就顯得愚蠢垄潮。從而推論出失敗主義的態(tài)度要比缺乏能力要嚴(yán)重，這些態(tài)度都在潛意識中毀掉他們的努力闷盔，教育者打算改變這種自我形象的認(rèn)知弯洗。他們發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)他們實(shí)現(xiàn)這個想法，這些孩子的行為就不再顯得愚蠢逢勾。Maltz根據(jù)這些和其他例子推斷出我們的經(jīng)驗(yàn)可以以一種自我催眠的方式運(yùn)作于我們自身牡整，給自己一個關(guān)于自身結(jié)論的暗示然后推動我們自身去實(shí)現(xiàn)這個結(jié)論。
許多關(guān)于自負(fù)的支持者都在Maltz證明的基礎(chǔ)上有了更深的認(rèn)識溺拱，自信對于成功是更重要的元素逃贝。他們聲稱沒有太多自負(fù)這樣的事情谣辞。研究沒有支持這種聲明。例如沐扳，Martin Seligman,一位杰出的心理研究學(xué)家泥从，引出了重大的證明，比起解決個人和社會問題，包括關(guān)于沮喪，現(xiàn)代過大的自負(fù)更容易導(dǎo)致這些問題哈雏。
Maltz的研究文件中表示缺乏自信會阻礙執(zhí)行力，一個非常有價值的見解和敬。但是如此多的研究不能解釋為什么越來越多的關(guān)于自負(fù)的全球觀點(diǎn)變得更有說服力凹炸。問題的答案在于人文主義心理學(xué)家的工作大眾化戏阅，就像Abraham Maslow描述的那樣將人類的需求描述為金字塔結(jié)構(gòu)，生理需求（吃和喝）作為基礎(chǔ)啤它。在基礎(chǔ)之上奕筐，按升序分別是，安全感的需求变骡，愛和歸屬的需求离赫，被尊重和認(rèn)可的需求，審美和認(rèn)知的需求（知識塌碌，學(xué)問等）渊胸。在金字塔頂?shù)男枨笫亲晕覍?shí)現(xiàn)或者說是我們潛能發(fā)揮。在Maslow的觀察中台妆，高級需求必須要在低級需求實(shí)現(xiàn)后才能實(shí)現(xiàn)翎猛。這就可以輕易看出自負(fù)一定要再自我實(shí)現(xiàn)之前完成這個想法是源自Maslow的理論。
然而其他理論也許也被采用接剩。一個著名的例子是奧地利精神病學(xué)家Viktor Frank的理論切厘，這個理論的發(fā)展時期和Maslow的理論差不多在同一時期，這個理論是建立在Frankl的專業(yè)實(shí)踐以及其在集中營時的經(jīng)驗(yàn)之上懊缺。Frankl提出一個人的內(nèi)心的渴望遠(yuǎn)比自我實(shí)現(xiàn)和自我超越的需求要強(qiáng)大疫稿，這種渴望的提升是通過自我專注度來實(shí)現(xiàn)的。依照Frankl的說法鹃两，原始人類學(xué)的事實(shí)是人類常常需要被管理遗座，并且指出某些事或人不同于其自身：去履行一些意義或者其他人類的相遇，服務(wù)于一結(jié)果俊扳，或者愛一個人途蒋。“一個人變成完人”是通過忘記自身的存在拣度，奉獻(xiàn)自己碎绎，認(rèn)識自己并且聚焦于外界來實(shí)現(xiàn)螃壤。
在Frankl的眼里，我們直接完成自我實(shí)現(xiàn)（或快樂）的追求筋帖，最終會導(dǎo)致自我挫敿榍纭；這樣的實(shí)行僅僅會以“自我超越的非預(yù)期效應(yīng)”的現(xiàn)象發(fā)生日麸。Franklz相信在生命中適當(dāng)?shù)脑妇安皇俏覀兡芙o自己提供什么寄啼，而是我們期望自己實(shí)現(xiàn)什么；生命的日常代箭，即使每一小時墩划，都要問自己，都要挑戰(zhàn)自己接受：“人生的責(zé)任是找到困境的本質(zhì)的答案并且履行那些不斷安排給我們中任何一人的任務(wù)嗡综∫野铮”
根據(jù)Frankl的理論，找到的含義包括“在現(xiàn)實(shí)中植入一個可能性的認(rèn)知”并且找到挑戰(zhàn)的任務(wù)“完成的這些任務(wù)是有可能存在的”极景。但是這種認(rèn)知和尋找會由于自身意愿而感到挫敳炀弧：“就像文學(xué)范圍內(nèi)的自身表達(dá)一樣，就內(nèi)容而言盼樟，作者的自我表達(dá)沒有說成自我展現(xiàn)氢卡，這些都是反映作者自身關(guān)于無價值和謬論的感受。更重要的事情到底是什么晨缴，他們也是在創(chuàng)造謬論译秦。這是鑒于事實(shí)的一種理解，意義需要被發(fā)現(xiàn)击碗，而不是被發(fā)明筑悴。感受不會被創(chuàng)建產(chǎn)生，但是荒謬的事情有可能被創(chuàng)建產(chǎn)生延都。
無論我們是否同意Frankl的觀點(diǎn)雷猪，有一件事情是非常清楚的：如果在過去的幾十年間人們關(guān)注的重點(diǎn)在Frankl的理論上而不是在Maslow和其他人本主義心理學(xué)家的理論上，那么同時代美國人民的文化會有明顯的不同晰房。我們每一個人都會被影響--我們能做的僅僅是想象究竟影響有多深刻——被我們的看法求摇，價值觀和信仰的影響。
