本文的來源是Steve Wallac 編寫的《如何成為學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作高手》，原書是英文版，我將總結(jié)書中的主要內(nèi)容供大家參考睛低，共同學(xué)習(xí)

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?Introduction

主要內(nèi)容：（詳細(xì)內(nèi)容可參考學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作3）

主題，學(xué)術(shù)重要性棋返，文獻(xiàn)綜述，知識缺口雷猪，研究問題

1.主題（Theme or Topic） ??

介紹你的研究主題有助于讀者清晰地理解你的研究是什么

要點：1）避免使用技術(shù)行話 ?2）不要從研究問題或假設(shè)開始引言部分 ?3）定義專業(yè)術(shù)語和概念

2. 學(xué)術(shù)重要性（Academic importance） ??

學(xué)術(shù)重要性體現(xiàn)在關(guān)于該主題缺少相關(guān)的研究睛竣，并且指出文獻(xiàn)中的知識缺口和不一致

要點：不要對整個領(lǐng)域?qū)懸粋€綜合的回顧

3.文獻(xiàn)綜述（Literature review）

要點：主要包含和主題相關(guān)的最近的研究成果

4.知識缺口（Knowledge gap）?

研究需要解決具體的知識缺口以及文獻(xiàn)中不一致，有爭議的問題求摇，并且提出本文的貢獻(xiàn)

?5.研究問題（Research question）

內(nèi)容應(yīng)該包括：1）本文的研究問題 ?2）研究目標(biāo) ?3）研究進(jìn)行的背景 ?4）文中使用的分析方法

引用參考文獻(xiàn)

要點：

1.避免對整個領(lǐng)域的歷史進(jìn)行文獻(xiàn)綜述

2.引用的文獻(xiàn)必須是最近的并且相關(guān)的

3.避免引用和研究沒有直接關(guān)系的文獻(xiàn)

4.和你的研究有矛盾或者提出其他思路的文獻(xiàn)必須引用

5.最近的文獻(xiàn)（不要超過五年）必須指明結(jié)果射沟，遠(yuǎn)一些的文獻(xiàn)只需要解釋這個領(lǐng)域思想的變化或者方法的發(fā)展

常見錯誤：

1.反復(fù)引用同一篇文獻(xiàn) ? 2.引用不相關(guān)文獻(xiàn) ? 3.過度引用定義 ? 4.錯誤歸屬 ? ?5.把啟示當(dāng)作事實 ? 6.太多的引用語

文獻(xiàn)綜述的寫法

文獻(xiàn)綜述形成了文章的理論基礎(chǔ)并討論該領(lǐng)域的已知信息殊者。它包含了總結(jié)，批評验夯，分析猖吴，綜合，評估簿姨，和對信息的重新組織距误。文獻(xiàn)綜述是對過去的研究提供一個新的解釋，并將新的解釋和舊的解釋相結(jié)合扁位，并且追溯該領(lǐng)域技術(shù)的發(fā)展，為讀者提供一個理論框架趁俊。

當(dāng)寫文獻(xiàn)綜述的時候域仇，下面有四個問題讀者應(yīng)該問自己

1.哪些方面應(yīng)該被包含在文獻(xiàn)綜述中呢？

要點：

1）簡要地討論本文研究如何和整個領(lǐng)域的研究趨勢一致

2）論文中所有關(guān)鍵概念的定義

3）對之前相關(guān)成果的集中和綜合的討論

4）對如何從過去的方法進(jìn)展到現(xiàn)在的研究進(jìn)行總結(jié)

5）本文假設(shè)的理論基礎(chǔ)

2.文獻(xiàn)綜述中的信息如何組織寺擂？

因為文獻(xiàn)綜述不是按照時間順序的總結(jié)暇务，因此需要組織已有的知識。下面從三個方面來描述：

1）定義

要點：

<1>所有的概念和專業(yè)術(shù)語都要被定義

<2>最好是在其第一次出現(xiàn)后就馬上定義

<3>不要直接從之前的論文中照搬過來怔软，要用自己的話描述

<4>這些定義不要被連續(xù)的列在文獻(xiàn)綜述中

2）屬性或要素

這些屬性和要素表明了方法的有效性

要點：作者應(yīng)該對這些屬性或要素總結(jié)而不只是單單的列出來

3）對立的觀點

對立的觀點可以作為和本文方法的對比

要點：應(yīng)該清楚地解釋對立觀點的不同之處

3.文獻(xiàn)綜述的結(jié)構(gòu)應(yīng)該如何構(gòu)建垦细？

文獻(xiàn)綜述的結(jié)構(gòu)應(yīng)該是有邏輯的，每一部分之間要聯(lián)系起來

要點：

<1>首先從相關(guān)領(lǐng)域宏觀背景開始挡逼，然后聚焦到所要研究的具體問題上

<2>標(biāo)題應(yīng)該簡短括改，要給出該部分內(nèi)容的概述

<3>使用相關(guān)的示意圖及對研究重要概念比較

<4>明確地定義專業(yè)術(shù)語和概念

<5>文本應(yīng)該和相關(guān)的標(biāo)題內(nèi)容相符

<6>提供對研究假設(shè)動機(jī)的簡要描述

4.文獻(xiàn)綜述的寫作風(fēng)格應(yīng)該是什么？

要點：

1）文獻(xiàn)綜述應(yīng)該易于閱讀和理解家坎，對于一個非專業(yè)人士應(yīng)該是清晰的

2）避免使用專業(yè)行話嘱能，不熟悉的術(shù)語或者短語或者未定義的縮寫

3）有一個清晰簡潔的流程有助于讀者理解

4）文獻(xiàn)綜述可以最后寫，這可以幫助有效地總結(jié)整篇文章

5）首先指出更大的研究背景虱疏，然后再到具體的研究方面惹骂。在寫的時候可以倒著寫，首先從具體的目的和研究對象開始做瞪，然后你就可以知道需要什么更宏觀的信息对粪，再寫宏觀的研究背景

6）你需要總結(jié)關(guān)于這個問題你已知的東西，但是你只需要的是對文獻(xiàn)的綜述装蓬，而不要包含對文獻(xiàn)的具體和冗長的解釋

有什么沖突或者未解決的問題

你需要發(fā)現(xiàn)一個有爭議的著拭，有問題的，未檢驗群落矛物，或者在已有的研究中沒有嘗試的方法茫死，可以通過突出問題，爭議或者指出知識缺口來完成履羞。

通過比較兩個東西的相同點和不同點峦萎，我們可以對這兩個東西都有更好的理解屡久。對比也是評估前的重要環(huán)節(jié)。

批評文獻(xiàn)或者他們的理論

注意爱榔！一定要注意你的審稿人的感受被环。公開批評你的參考文獻(xiàn)和他們的理論是一件危險的事情。

要點：

1.永遠(yuǎn)不要使得你的批評成為對某篇文獻(xiàn)的個人攻擊

2.你的批評應(yīng)該是有效的详幽，有理由的

3.不要為了批評而批評

4.意識到如果你的批評是錯誤的筛欢，你可能會損害自己在這一領(lǐng)域的名聲

5.問問這個領(lǐng)域的其他學(xué)者你的批評是否是有效的

6.有很大的可能性你批評的那些人就是決定你的論文是否被錄用的人

提出你的解決方案

簡要描述你的研究（假設(shè)或者研究疑問），實驗設(shè)計或方法唇聘，如果有其他的選擇使用該方法的原因

1.確保明確地陳述目的或者假設(shè)

目的的陳述一般都放在引言的末尾部分版姑，通常作為最后一段的主題句。

2.提供使用你的方法的原因

簡要的描述你的方法迟郎，通常跟在目的之后剥险，不要討論具體的細(xì)節(jié)。為什么選擇這種實驗設(shè)計宪肖？這種模型的優(yōu)點是什么表制？回答這個問題有什么優(yōu)點？如果使用的方法是新的控乾，那就要強(qiáng)調(diào)該方法和之前使用方法對比的優(yōu)勢

一些建議

1）從一般到具體：把顯示生活中的問題和你的研究文獻(xiàn)聯(lián)系么介，然后是你的實驗

2）吸引讀者的注意：回答下面的問題“你做了什么？”“為什么我要關(guān)心”

3）清晰地呈現(xiàn)你的問題和解決方案蜕衡、你的疑問和你的實驗設(shè)計壤短、之前的和你的實驗之間的聯(lián)系

4）盡可能多的使用主動語態(tài)

常用句型

一、描述所要研究的問題

1.建立所要研究主題的重要性

1) One of the most essential current discussions in Electrical Engineering is ...

2) It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the X, Y and Z problem

3) X is the leading cause of Y in ...

4) In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...

5) In the history of Y, X has been thought of as a key factor in ...

2.或者從強(qiáng)調(diào)時間開始

1）In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...

2）Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...

3）Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...

4）The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ...

二衷咽、總結(jié)其他的研究成果——提供背景鸽扁，關(guān)鍵術(shù)語，概念

1.相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)的一般描述

1）A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ...

2）The first serious discussions and analyses of X has emerged during the 1970s with ...

3）What we know about X is largely based on empirical studies that investigate how?

2.之前研究的一般文獻(xiàn)（通常不止一個作者）

1）Numerous studies have attempted to explain ...(e.g., Smith,1996; Kelly, 1998)

2）Recent evidence suggests that ...(Smith,1996; Kelly, 1998 )

3）Surveys such as those conducted by Smith (1998) show that

4）Several attempts have been made to ...( Smith,1996; Kelly, 1998)

3.和我們當(dāng)前知識相關(guān)的文獻(xiàn)

1）A relationship exists between an individual's working memory and the ability to ...(Smith et al.,1996)

2）Genetically modified varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith,1996)

3）X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD( Smith,1996)

4.解釋關(guān)鍵詞

1）While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper uses the definition first suggested by Thomas(1998), who saw it as ...

2）Throughout this paper, the term X refers to ...

3）This article uses the acronym/abbreviation XYZ

5.描述關(guān)鍵詞的意義/應(yīng)用

1）The term X has come to refer to?

2）The term X is generally understood to mean

3）The term X has been applied to situations where students ...

4）In broad biological terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is ...

三镶骗、定義概念

1.指出定義一個術(shù)語的困難

1）Various definitions of talent are found in the field of language teaching

2）Talent is a commonly used concept in learning, yet it is difficult to define precisely

3）Smith(2001) identified two abilities that might be collected under the term talent: (1)... (2)...

2.引用別人的對于術(shù)語的定義

1）Williams(1994) was apparently the first to use the term...

2）Chomsky wrote that a semiconductor is a "mechanical device of some sort for producing ..."(1967, p. 11)

3）According to a definition provided by Jones(2001), talent is the maximally ...

4）The term "talent" was used by Rogers(2001) to refer to ...

5）Mattinez (2001) used the term "talent" to refer to ...

6）For James(2001), talent means/refers to ...

3.一般話題的歸類

1）Bone is generally classified into two types: cortical bone, also known as ..., and cancellous bone, or ...

2）The works of Aristotle fall under three categories: (1) dialogues and ...; (2) collections of facts and ... (3)systematic works

3）There are two basic approaches currently adopted by research on X. One is the Y approach, and the other is ...

4.具體話題的歸類

1）Smith and Jones(2009) argued that there are two broad categories of Y, which are as follows: (a)...; and (b)...

2）According to Aristotle, motion is of four types:(1) motion that ... ; (2) motion that ... ; (3) motion that ... ; (4) motion that ... ;

5.引入關(guān)鍵因素

1）There are three reasons why language research has become so important. These are...

2）There are generally two outcomes when a patient undergoes X. These are ...

3） The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are ...

6.引用別人的文獻(xiàn)中的要素

1）Jamison (2008) suggested three conditions for its acceptance. First, X should be ... Second, it needs to be ... Third, ...

2）Martinez (1999) listed X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality

3）Patrickson (2007) argued that there are two broad categories of Y, which are as follows: (a) ... and (b) ...

四桶现、引用參考文獻(xiàn)

1.引用過去的單次研究

（1）主語是研究者

1）Smith found that as levels of literacy and education of the population rise

2） Smith showed that reducing X to 190 degree

3） Smith demonstrated that when the maximum temperature is exceed ...

4） Smith investigated the differential impact of formal and non-formal education on ...

5） Smith analyzed data from 72 countries and concluded that ...

6） Smith reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this claim

7） Smith interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured questionnaires

8） Smith studied the effects of cytochrome P450 on unprotected nerve cells

9） Smith performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to shown that ...

10） Smith carried out a number of investigations into the ...

11） Smith conducted a series of trials in which they mixed X with different quantities of ...

12） Smith measured both components of the ....

13） Smith labelled these subsets as ...

14） ?Smith examined the flow of international students

下面總結(jié)了引用文獻(xiàn)時在人名之后跟著的動詞

Smith studied / investigated / examined /looked at/into / evaluated / catalogued / listed / recorded / tabulated / indexed/ tallied / considered / described / warned / contended / agreed / formulated /complained / wrote / asserted / cautioned / stated / filed / indicated /inventoried / denoted / signified / designated / specified / manifested / implied that / revealed / disclosed / exhibited / presented / characterized / scheduled/ intimated / clarified / experimented with / raised the question as to /compared the mean scores / pointed out / demonstrated / approached / conceived of / held that since / proposed / admitted / referred to / has shown / suggested/ thought that / questioned / accounted for / reviewed / created / observed that / distinguished between / made the distinction

（2）強(qiáng)調(diào)研究本身

1） Preliminary work on ?X was undertaken by Abdul Karim (1992)

2） The first systematic study of X was reproted by Patel et al. in 1986

3） The study of the structural behavior of X was first carried out by Rao et al. (1986).

4） Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith er al. (1983).

5） A recent study by Smith and Jones (2001) involved ...

6） A longitudinal study of X by Smith (2002) reported that ...

7） A small-scale study by Smith (2002) reached different conclusions, finding no increase ...

8） Smith's cross-country analysis (2002) showed that ...

9） Smith's comparative study (2002) found that ...

10） Detailed examination of X by Smith showed that ...

11） In another major study, Zhao (1974) found that just over half of the ...

12） In a randomized controlled study of X, Smith (2007) reported that...

13） In a large longitudinal study, Smith investigaed that the incidence of X in Y41

（3）研究話題作為主語

1） Classical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by Smith (2002)

2） The electric spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith in 1970

3） The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was fist reported by Smith in 1982

4） X is the central focus of a study by Smith (2002), in which the author found ...

5） X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from ... (Wang er al.,1952)

6） The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues

7） To determine the effects of X, Smith (2005) compared ...

2.引用其他作者在他們的研究中做了什么

（1）作者作為主語

1） Smith (2003) identified poor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene, and large families as the major causes of ...

2） Smith (2003) listed three reasons why English language has become so dominat.

3） Smith (2003) traced the development of Janpanese history and philosophy during the 19th century

4） Smith (2003) provided in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle, showing its relevance to contemporary times.

5） Smith (2003) drew attention to distinctive categories of motivational beliefs often observed in ...

6） Smith (2003) defined evidence-based medicine as the conscious, explicit, and judicious use of ...

7） Smith (2003) emphasized the need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth ...

8） Smith (2003) discussed the challenges and stratedies for facilitating and promoting ...

9） Smith (2003) mentioned the specail situation of Sinapore as an example of ...

10） Smith (2003) questioned whether mainstream schools are the best environment for ...

11） Smith (2003) considered whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as ...?

12） Smith (2003) used examples of these various techniques as evidence that ...

13） Some analysts (e.g., Carnoy, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinction between ...

14） Other authors (see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan,2004) have questioned the usefulness of such an approach

15）In her major study, / In her seminal artical, / In her classic critique of ... , / In her case study of ... , / In her review of ... , / In her analysis of ... , / In her introduction to ... , Smith (

3.引用其他作者的思想

作者作為主語

1） According to Smith (2003), preventive medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world.

2）This view is supported by Jones (2000), who wrote ...

3） Smith argued that her data supports O'Brien's (1988) view tha?

4） Smith (2003) indicated / argued / maintained / claimed / concluded / suggested? that preventative medicine is far more cost effective and therefore better adapted to the developing world.

5） Smith (2003) argued for / offered / proposed / suggested ?an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief.

五、問題鼎姊，爭議和知識缺口

1.強(qiáng)調(diào)問題或爭議

1）However, these rapid changes have a serious effect ...

1）However, a major problem with this type of application is ...

1）To date, there has been little agreement on what ...

1）More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ...

1）There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...

1）Despite its long clinical success, X has numerous problems in use.

1）Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks.

1）Researchers have raised concerns about the poor ...

1）One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...

1）One observer has already draw attention to the paradox in ...

1）In many Xs, a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...

1）The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century

1）The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ...

1）This issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...

1）One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns ...

1）A major issue in early X research concerned ...

2.強(qiáng)調(diào)知識缺口

1）So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...

1）However, far too little attention has been paid to ...

1）Most studies in X have only been executed in a small number of areas.

1）To date, research has tended to focus on X rather than Y.

1）In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ...

1）So far, this method has only been applied to ...

1）Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith 2002;Jones 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ...

1）However, there have been no controlled studies that compare differences in ...

1）Experimental data is rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...

六骡和、批評文獻(xiàn)或者它們的理論

1.引入疑問，問題或者局限性（理論和作者）

1）One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ...

1）A serious weakness with this agument, however, is that ...

1）One of the limitations of this explanation is that it dose not wexplain why...

1）One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...

1）The key problem with this expanation si that ...

1）Existing accounts fail to resolve the conreadiction between X and Y.

1）However, there is inconsistency with this argument.

1）Smith's argument relies heavily on the qualitativr analysis of ...

1）It seems that Jone's understanding of ?the X framworks is questionable.

1）Smith's interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ...

1）One major criticism of Smith's work is that...

1）Many writers have challenged Jone's claim on the grounds that...

2.引入疑問相寇，問題或者局限性（方法和實踐）

1）Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account.

1）Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that...

1）Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement X

1）Neverthless, This strategy has not eacaped criticism from gobernments agencies, and academics

1）One major drawback of this approcah is that...

1）The main limitaion of biosynthetic incorporation ,however, is ...

1）However ,this mehod of analysis has numerous limitaions.

1）However, approaches of this type entail various well-known limitations.

1）All of the studies reviewed thus far, however, suffer from...

1）However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious limitations/weakness/disadvantages/drawbacks.

3.指出研究的缺陷

1）However, the main weakness of this study is its faliure to address how ...

1）However, the study fails to consider the different categories of ...

1）However, the research does not take into accoutn pre-existing ... such as ...

1）However, the author does not distinguish between X and Y

1）However, Smith makes no attempt to diffenentiate?between various types of X?

1）However,Jonde s fails to fully acknowledge the siginificance of ...

1）However, the paper appears to be over ambitious in its claims of ...

1）However,the author overlooks the fact that X ?contributes to Y

1）However, what SMith fails to do dis to draw a distinction between...

1）However, another weakness is the complete lack of explanation regarding...

4.提出有建設(shè)性的意見

1）Smith's paper /Her conclusions / The study/ the? findings? ould have been /might have been more /much more/ far more useful /conbiincing /interesting /persuasive /original if he/she had /if the author had included ... cpmsodered ... adopted ... used ...

1）A broader study would examine alarge, randomly selected sample of societies with ...

1）A more systematic study would identify how X interacts with others variables that are believed to be linked to ...

4.引用其他人對你引用文獻(xiàn)的批評

1）However, Jones pointed out that...

1）Many analysts have argued that the strategy ofX has not been successful. Jones, for example, argued that ...?

1）Non-government agencies are alsovery critical of the new policies.

1）The X theory has been igorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers?

1）SMith;s analysis hase been criticized by a number of writers .Jones, for example ,pointed out that ....

1）The most noteworthy of these criticisms is that SMith failed to note that ...

1）Smith's analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism

1）Jones is probobely the best known critic of th X throty, H argued that

1）The latter point has been devastaingly critiqued by Jones .

1）Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccuriate measure of X, but they....

1）Critics question the ablility of poststructuralist theory to provide ...

1）More rencent arguments against X have been summarized by Smith and Jones

1）Jones criticized the conclusions that Smith drew from his findings?

提出你的解決方案

1.陳述目的

1）The purpose of this study is to ...

1）This study investigates three possible mechanisms to explain the ...

1）This paper focuses on/examines/assesses ...

1）This paper seeks to address the following questions....

1）The purpose of this paper is to review recent research on the ...

1）This paper reviews the research conducted on ....

1）The aim of this paper is to determine /examine ....

1）The aim of this study is to evaluate and validate ....

2.提供為什么要使用這個方法的原因

1）This study uses the semi-structured approach because ...

1）Smith eral identified several advantages of ...

1）The best method to adopt for this investigation is to...

1）A case study approach allows ...

1）The questionnaire design is based on ...

1）The X method is one of the more practical ways to ...

1）Quantitative measurtes usefully supplement and txtend teh qualitative analysis of?

3.快速

六慰于、比較

1.引導(dǎo)句：不同點

1）X is different from Y in a number of respects.

1）There are a number of? important differences between X and Y.

1）X differs from Y in a number of important ways.

1）Smith(2003) found distinct differences between X and Y.

1）Women and men differ not only in physical attributes, but also in the way in which they ...

2.引導(dǎo)句：相同點

1）The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain.

1）The mode of processing used by the right brain is comparable in complexity to that used by ?the left brain.

1）The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone.

1）Both X and Y generally occur in a "safe environment"

1）There are a number of similarities between X and Y.

1）Numerous Studies have compared the brain cells in man and animals, showing that these cells are essentially identical.

3.在一個句子中比較

1）In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies

1）Compared with people in oral cultures, people in literate cultures organize their lives around clocks and calendars.

1）Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past.

1）Women 's brain process language simultaneously on both sides of brain, while men tend to process language on the left side only.

1）This interpretation contrasts with that of Smith and Jones (2004), who argued that ...

4.在一個句子中比較（比較級）

1）Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board.

1）Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed.

1）Furthermore, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills.

1）Adolescents are less likely to be put to ?sleep by alcohol than adults.

1）Men learned the route in fewer trails and made fewer errors than did women.

5.兩個句子的對比

1）It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. By contrast, many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth

2）Tests show that women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. Conversely, ....

3）Young children learning their first language need simplified, comprehensible input. ?Similarly, ...

4）Speech functions are less likely to be affected in women because .... A similar pattern emerges in studies of ...

七、描述過去

1.使用簡單的過去時態(tài)的與時間相關(guān)的短語

1）For centuries, / In the second half of the 19th century, ?/At the end of the nineteenth century, church authorities placed restrictions on academics.

2）During the Nazi period, / Between 1933 and 1945, / From 1933 to 1945, / In the 1930s and 1940s, restrictions were placed on German academics.

2.引用過去發(fā)表的單個的研究或者論文

1）The first systematic study of X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986

2）Erythromycin was originally isolated from X in a soil sample from ...

3）In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ...

3.過去完成時

1）Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z

2）Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade.

3）Until recently, there has been little interest in X.

4）Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields.

5）In recent years, researchers have investigated various of approaches to X, but ...

6）Up to now, research?has tended to focus on X rather than on Y.

7）To date, little evidence has been found?little evidence has been found associating X with Y.

8）So far, researchers have identified three factors as being potentially important: X, Y and Z

4.現(xiàn)在完成時用于描述最近的研究或?qū)W術(shù)活動——通常是多個研究

1）There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy (Smith,1985; Jones,1987).

2）The relationship between a diet high in fat and poor health has been widely investigated (Smith,1985; Jones,1987)

3）The new material has been shown to enhance cooling properties (Smith,1985; Jones,1987)

4）Invasive plants have been identified as major contributing factors in the decline of many North American species.

5）A considerable amount of literature has been published on X.

引言部分的時態(tài)

1.現(xiàn)有知識

1）當(dāng)陳述或報道已存在的事實用一般現(xiàn)在時

舉例： Fine motor skills require integrating muscular ...

2）當(dāng)從很多之前的研究中報道某發(fā)現(xiàn)時用現(xiàn)在完成時

舉例：Previous studies have indicated the need to further examine X

2.文獻(xiàn)綜述

1）當(dāng)陳述或報道已存在的事實用一般現(xiàn)在時

舉例：The salt in most oceans is approximately 97% sodium chloride (Ritchie, 1999)

2）當(dāng)引用一個單獨的唤衫，之前的研究婆赠，用過去時

舉例：Kurtz (2008) found that instructors allocated equal time to each group.

注意在上面的句子中，有兩個動詞佳励，found 和 allocated休里， 第一個用過去時描述這是在過去完成的蛆挫，第二個過去時是作者在過去的研究中做了什么。對比下面的句子

舉例：Baggio (1994) revealed that DNA polymerase performs a vital function in DNA replication in animal cells.

上面句子的第二個動詞perform描述的是一個事實妙黍，任何人在任何時間任何地方做這個實驗都成立

3）當(dāng)從多個之前的研究中報道發(fā)現(xiàn)時悴侵，用現(xiàn)在完成時

舉例：Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom lighting and standardized test performance (Jens,2006; Kirby et al., 2008).

附：對比下面三句話的不同：

a. Owen discovered that memory load affects brain activity?

b. Owen discovered that memory load affected brain activity

c. Owen suggested that memory load may affect brain activity

第一句用一般現(xiàn)在時，說明這個研究發(fā)現(xiàn)一個事實拭嫁。第二句用過去時可免，說明這個研究有特定的限定環(huán)境。第三句用suggested 和 may來描述發(fā)現(xiàn)的啟示

3.知識缺口

1）當(dāng)報道已存在的事實以及當(dāng)前被接受的方法用一般現(xiàn)在時

舉例：Little information is available on the risks and benefits of X vs. Y

2）當(dāng)從多個之前的研究中報道發(fā)現(xiàn)時做粤，用現(xiàn)在完成時

舉例：However, few studies have reported the effects of antioxidant seed on the endocrine system.

4.問題陳述

1）當(dāng)寫和報道相關(guān)的陳述時用一般現(xiàn)在時

舉例： The aim of this paper is to determine the principal mechanical parameters of thin film deposited on a circular glass substrate.

2）當(dāng)寫和你自己的研究報道相關(guān)的陳述時用過去時

舉例： The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not a genetic correlation exists between performance levels at high and low temperatures.

5.研究的基本原理（可選）

當(dāng)表達(dá)期望的結(jié)果或者提供未來的建議浇借，用含有情態(tài)動詞的一般現(xiàn)在時（could, may, might）

舉例：This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.

引用和引語

引用（Citation）指的是你用自己的話把其他作者表達(dá)的意思告訴讀者。引語（Quotation）指的是直接把作者的描述原封不動的搬過來驮宴，引語要用“”來表示

舉例：

1） Schs concludes that "The idea of development stand today like a ...."

2） As Smith argued: "In the past ..."(Smith,2000)

3） As Carnoy stated: "There are many good reasons to be skeptical"

4） In the final part of his thesis, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various way ..."