How Important Is Lead Poisoning to Becoming a Legendary Artist?
鉛中毒滋戳，而后成名藝術(shù)家？
A self-portrait of Goya being attended to by his doctor, 1820
《戈雅自畫像——被醫(yī)生照顧》倔约，1820
For masters who used lead paints, such as Michelangelo and Goya, art was literally pain.
In 1713, Italian physician Bernardinus Ramazzini described in his De Morbis Artificum Diatriba a mysterious set of symptoms he was noticing among artists:
“Of the many painters I have known, almost all I found unhealthy … If we search for the cause of the cachectic and colorless appearance of the painters, as well as the melancholy feelings that they are so often victims of, we should look no further than the harmful nature of the pigments…”
對(duì)于使用鉛制顏料的繪畫大師秃殉，比如：米開朗基羅、戈雅，藝術(shù)意味著實(shí)實(shí)在在的痛楚钾军。
1713年鳄袍，意大利醫(yī)生納迪諾·拉馬奇尼(Bernardinus Ramazzini)[1]在其著作《工人的疾病》(De Morbis Artificum Diatriba)中，描述了他從藝術(shù)家身上察覺出的一些神秘的癥狀：
“在我所認(rèn)識(shí)的畫家中吏恭，幾乎無(wú)一健康…他們多數(shù)都體質(zhì)孱弱拗小、面容蒼白、多愁善感樱哼，其罪魁禍?zhǔn)拙褪悄切┯泻Φ念伭习Ь拧！?/p>
He was one of the first to make the connection between paint and artists health, but it would take centuries for painters to switch to less-harmful materials, even as medicine gradually clued into the bodily havoc “saturnism” could wreak.
The 1834 London Medical and Surgical Journal describes sharp stomach pains occurring in patients with no other evidence of intestinal disease, thus leading the authors to suspect that this “painter’s colic” was a “nervous affection” of the intestines that occurs when lead “is absorbed into the system.”
拉馬奇尼是最早將顏料與畫家的健康聯(lián)系在一起的人之一搅幅。盡管醫(yī)學(xué)逐漸發(fā)現(xiàn)并告知人們鉛毒對(duì)人體會(huì)造成極大的危害阅束，然而，直到幾百年后茄唐，畫家們才改用其他危害較小的顏料息裸。
1834年，《倫敦醫(yī)學(xué)與外科雜志》(London Medical and Surgical Journal)描述了一種在病患中發(fā)現(xiàn)的沒有腸道疾病伴隨的劇烈的腹痛沪编。于是界牡，撰文的作者便懷疑“畫家們的急性腹痛”可能是鉛滲入人體后，腸道出現(xiàn)的一種“神經(jīng)性疾病”漾抬。
Paints weren’t the only source of lead overdose in past centuries, though. Through the 1500s, lead was a common sweetener in wine, in the form of “l(fā)itharge,” causing periodic outbreaks of intestinal distress throughout Europe. Occasionally, lead was even used as a medicine; the 11th-century Persian physician Avicenna’s Canon mentioned its usefulness in treating diarrhea. In the Middle Ages, lead could be found in makeup, chastity belts, and spermicides.
Though typesetters, tinkers, and drinkers of lead-poisoned wine fell victim to saturnism, the disease was perhaps most widespread among those who worked with paint.
不過宿亡，在過去的幾百年中，并不只是繪畫顏料中含有大量的鉛纳令。在整個(gè)16世紀(jì)挽荠，鉛（主要是以鉛黃[2]的形式）都是葡萄酒中的一種普通甜味劑。這就導(dǎo)致當(dāng)時(shí)在歐洲間斷性地爆發(fā)腸道疾病平绩。少數(shù)情況下圈匆，鉛還會(huì)被作為藥物對(duì)待；11世紀(jì)波斯醫(yī)生阿維森納(Avicenna)[3]的《藥典》(Canon)中就記載了可以用鉛治療腹瀉捏雌。在中世紀(jì)時(shí)跃赚，鉛還被用來制作化妝品、貞潔帶和殺精劑性湿。
盡管排字工人纬傲、爐匠和含鉛酒類的飲用者深受鉛毒所害，但中毒最廣的恐怕還是跟顏料打交道的人肤频。
The symptoms of this “colic” ranged, but they often included a “cadaverous-looking” pallor, tooth loss, fatigue, painful stomach aches, partial paralysis, and gout, a buildup of uric acid that causes arthritis—all of which resemble the symptoms of chronic lead poisoning seen today. In fact, the ailments that many renowned artists experienced didnt just prompt their gloomy works—they might have been caused by them, too.
Lead poisoning among historical figures is famously difficult to prove, in part because the condition was not known or recognized in most of their lifetimes. We can’t know whether the delusions, depression, and gout many Renaissance masters experienced can be attributed to their paint or just their physiologies.
急性腹痛患者的癥狀會(huì)時(shí)而改變叹括，不過，通常都在一定的范圍內(nèi)宵荒，這包括：臉色蒼白汁雷、牙齒脫落净嘀、身體倦怠、劇烈腹痛侠讯、局部痙攣挖藏、痛風(fēng)及尿酸累積引發(fā)的關(guān)節(jié)炎。所有這些在今天看來都像是患上慢性鉛中毒后的癥狀厢漩。事實(shí)上熬苍，知名藝術(shù)家患有的病癥不單促使他們創(chuàng)作了那些彌漫著陰郁氣息的作品——病癥的元兇也許就是這些作品本身。
眾所周知袁翁，著名歷史人物的鉛中毒難以被證實(shí)柴底。其中一部分原因在于，他們平生的身體狀況不為人所知或發(fā)現(xiàn)粱胜。我們無(wú)法確定那些在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的繪畫大師中出現(xiàn)的幻覺柄驻、抑郁和中風(fēng)是由鉛中毒導(dǎo)致的，還是只是緣于他們自身的生理機(jī)能焙压。
Julio Montes-Santiago, and internist in Vigo, Spain, recently evaluated the existing evidence of lead poisoning among artists across five centuries for a new paper in Progress in Brain Research. Based on the available descriptions of their materials and symptoms, history’s most famous sufferers of lead poisoning, he argues, likely included Michelangelo Buonarroti, Francisco Goya, Candido Portinari, and possibly Vincent Van Gogh.
近日鸿脓，西班牙維戈市[4]的內(nèi)科醫(yī)生胡里奧·蒙特·圣地亞哥(Julio Montes-Santiago)研究了過去500年中藝術(shù)家的鉛中毒現(xiàn)象，并對(duì)現(xiàn)存的相關(guān)證據(jù)進(jìn)行了評(píng)估涯曲。這篇論文刊登在《腦科學(xué)研究進(jìn)展》(Progress in Brain Research)雜志中野哭。蒙特·圣地亞哥指出，根據(jù)文獻(xiàn)中對(duì)繪畫材料和畫家病癥的描述幻件，歷史上最著名的鉛中毒受害者恐怕包括：米開朗基羅·博納羅蒂(Michelangelo Buonarroti)拨黔、弗朗西斯科·戈雅(Francisco Goya)[5]、坎迪多·波爾蒂納里(Candido Portinari)[6]及文森特·梵高(Vincent Van Gogh)绰沥。
Michelangelo in The School of Athens, 1509.
《雅典學(xué)派》中的米開朗基羅篱蝇，1509
Michelangelo, for example, was painted into Raphaels fresco, The School of Athens, with a deformed, likely arthritic knee, according to the author. That, combined with letters from Michelangelo in which he complains of passing stones in his urine, suggests to Montes-Santiago that he might have suffered from paint- and wine-induced gout.
Many art historians think Van Gogh might have suffered from epilepsy and bipolar disorder, but Montes-Santiago argues that lead poisoning likely contributed to his delusions and hallucinations. The artist was known to have sucked on his brushes, possibly because lead has a sweet aftertaste. Meanwhile, other scholars have disputed the lead poisoning hypothesis, arguing that the root of Van Gogh’s distress was porphyria, malnutrition, and absinthe abuse.
蒙特·圣地亞哥在書中寫道，在拉斐爾的壁畫《雅典學(xué)派》中徽曲，米開朗基羅的膝蓋看上去有些變形零截，似乎患有關(guān)節(jié)炎。另外秃臣，在其書信中涧衙，他也抱怨過自已尿液中的結(jié)石。這些資料讓蒙特·圣地亞哥認(rèn)為米開朗基羅很可能患有痛風(fēng)奥此，并且這是由其所使用的顏料和飲用的葡萄酒導(dǎo)致的弧哎。
許多藝術(shù)史學(xué)家認(rèn)為梵高可能患有癲癇和躁狂抑郁性精神病，但蒙特·圣地亞哥認(rèn)為鉛中毒也許才是導(dǎo)致其妄想和幻覺的根源得院。傳說梵高有吮吸筆刷的習(xí)慣傻铣，也許是由于鉛有微甜的回味章贞。與此同時(shí)祥绞，另外一些學(xué)者反對(duì)這種鉛中毒的假說非洲，他們認(rèn)為梵高的憂郁特質(zhì)是由紫質(zhì)癥[7]、營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良和酗酒（苦艾酒）引起的蜕径。
Goya occasionally applied his paints directly to the canvas with his fingers, which Montes-Santiago argues is one reason he experienced problems like constipation, trembling hands, weakness of the limbs, blindness, vertigo, and tinnitus. In his famous 1820 self-portrait, Goya painted himself being embraced by his doctor.
Musicians Beethoven and Handel also might have been afflicted with saturnism, but not because of the nature of their craft. Samples of Beethoven’s hair examined by the Pfeiffer Research Center in Illinois showed high lead concentrations, possibly as a result of the “high content of lead in the Hungarian wines that the musician drank, the repeated biting of his lead pencils, and lead-rich medicines prescribed by his doctor,” Montes-Santiago notes.
有時(shí)两踏，戈雅會(huì)直接用手指蘸顏料作畫，蒙特·圣地亞哥認(rèn)為這可能是導(dǎo)致其便秘兜喻、手抖梦染、四肢無(wú)力、眼瞎朴皆、頭暈及耳鳴的一個(gè)原因帕识。聞名于世的戈雅自畫像創(chuàng)作于1820年，畫中的戈雅依偎在醫(yī)生的懷抱中遂铡。
音樂家貝多芬和亨德爾[8]大概也受鉛毒所害肮疗，不過，卻并非行業(yè)屬性使然扒接。根據(jù)位于伊利諾斯州的普菲佛研究中心(the Pfeiffer Research Center)的檢測(cè)結(jié)果伪货，貝多芬的頭發(fā)樣本中含有大量的鉛。蒙特·圣地亞哥寫道钾怔，究其原因可能“與飲用鉛含量較高的匈牙利葡萄酒碱呼、經(jīng)常咬鉛筆及醫(yī)生所開的富鉛藥物有關(guān)。
The best evidence for lead poisoning, though, exists for Candido Portinari, the 20th-century Brazilian painter of massive, neorealist murals. Portinari used paints that were similar to those used by Van Gogh and was diagnosed with saturnism after digestive hemorrhages prompted a hospitalization in 1954.
He was advised by doctors to switch materials, and he tried, but he ultimately returned to his old paints. He died at age 58 in 1962 after a bout of severe digestive bleeding.
然而宗侦，最確鑿無(wú)疑的鉛中毒患者莫過于坎迪多·波爾蒂納里——這個(gè)創(chuàng)作大幅新寫實(shí)主義壁畫的巴西畫家愚臀。波爾蒂納里所使用的顏料與梵高的類似。他先是出現(xiàn)了腸道出血的情況矾利，之后被診斷出了鉛中毒懊悯。在1954年，他不得不進(jìn)行住院治療梦皮。
醫(yī)生建議他更換繪畫顏料炭分，他照做了，但最終還是改用了以前的顏料剑肯。1962年捧毛，波爾蒂納里又一次出現(xiàn)嚴(yán)重的腸道出血，之后便去世了让网，享年58歲呀忧。
Though some of the earlier artists may not have known about the connection between their materials and their health, Portinari certainly must have.
盡管一些早期的畫家并不清楚他們所使用的顏料與自身健康之間的關(guān)系，波爾蒂納里卻非常清楚這一點(diǎn)溃睹。
"Discovery of the Land" by Portinari, 1941
波爾蒂納里的《發(fā)現(xiàn)新大陸》而账，1941
By the mid-1800s, the health impacts of lead had become clear. An 1836 book notes, for example, “The business of a Painter or Varnisher is generally, and not without reason, considered an unhealthy one. Many of the substances which he is necessarily in the habit of employing are of a nature to do injury both to the nerves and the inside.”
19世紀(jì)中葉，人們已清楚地認(rèn)識(shí)到了鉛對(duì)人體的危害因篇。比如泞辐，在1836年的一本書中就記錄了這樣的話笔横，“通常來講，畫家和油漆匠的行當(dāng)對(duì)人體健康不利咐吼，這點(diǎn)已有相關(guān)根據(jù)吹缔。他們對(duì)工作中不可避免要用到的材料也許感到習(xí)以為常，但這些材料卻會(huì)對(duì)人體的神經(jīng)及器官造成很大的傷害锯茄∠崽粒”
According to Montes-Santiago, though, Portinari seemed to strongly prefer working with the lead paints, reportedly saying “They forbid me to live,” about the doctors who urged him to give them up.
“Sometimes, art hurts,” Montes-Santiago writes. “But it also can save.”
然而，根據(jù)蒙特·圣地亞哥的研究肌幽，波爾蒂納里似乎十分偏好使用鉛制顏料晚碾。據(jù)說波爾蒂納里在談及那些敦促他停止使用鉛制顏料的醫(yī)生們時(shí)說，“他們不讓我活下去喂急∑。”
蒙特·圣地亞哥寫道，“有時(shí)煮岁，藝術(shù)會(huì)給人帶來痛楚讥蔽，但它也可以延展生命』”
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譯注：
[1]納迪諾·拉馬奇尼(Bernardinus Ramazzini): (1633 – 1714)意大利醫(yī)生冶伞，他是最早提倡用金雞納皮（Cinchona Bark）（從中提取金雞納霜堿，又稱奎寧）治療瘧疾的人之一步氏。對(duì)醫(yī)學(xué)最大貢獻(xiàn)是在治療職業(yè)病方面响禽，主要成果記錄在其著作《工人的疾病》中。
[2]鉛黃:一氧化鉛荚醒，化學(xué)式PbO芋类，俗稱鉛黃、黃丹界阁、密陀僧侯繁。為兩性氧化物，常溫時(shí)為淡黃色結(jié)晶粉末泡躯。用作顏料鉛白贮竟、制造鉛皂、冶金助溶劑较剃、油漆催干劑咕别、陶瓷原料、橡膠硫化促進(jìn)劑写穴、殺蟲劑惰拱，鉛鹽塑料穩(wěn)定劑原料，鉛玻璃工業(yè)原料啊送，鉛鹽類工業(yè)的中間原料偿短。少量用作中藥和用于蓄電池工業(yè)欣孤，
[3]阿維森納(Avicenna)：(980～1037)又稱伊本.西那。塔吉克人翔冀，生于布哈拉附近导街。中世紀(jì)波斯哲學(xué)家披泪、醫(yī)學(xué)家纤子、自然科學(xué)家、文學(xué)家款票。所著《醫(yī)典》是十七世紀(jì)以前亞洲控硼、歐洲廣大地區(qū)的主要醫(yī)學(xué)教科書和參考書。主要著作還有《治療論》艾少、《知識(shí)論》等卡乾。
[4]維戈（Vigo）：西班牙西北部的一座港城，加利西亞自治區(qū)第一大城缚够，面積109.1平方公里幔妨，人口293,725人（2005年普查）。維戈是西甲著名足球俱樂部維戈塞爾塔的所在地谍椅。
[5]弗朗西斯科·戈雅(Francisco Goya):(1746-1828)全名：弗朗西斯科·何塞·德·戈雅-盧西恩特斯误堡，西班牙浪漫主義畫派畫家。
[6]坎迪多·波爾蒂納里(Candido Portinari)：(1903－1962）雏吭，巴西最重要的畫家之一锁施。他也是繪畫界新寫實(shí)主義（Neorealism）風(fēng)格突出且具有影響力的實(shí)踐者。
[7]紫質(zhì)癥（Porphyria）：又稱卟啉癥杖们、吡咯卟啉癥悉抵。一種引發(fā)精神癥狀及皮膚對(duì)光過敏的血液病。
[8]格奧爾格·弗里德里险辏·亨德爾（George Frideric Handel）：（1685－1759）姥饰，巴洛克音樂（Italian Baroque）的作曲家，出生于德國(guó)孝治，后來定居并入籍英國(guó)媳否，曾受聘為英國(guó)宮廷教堂樂長(zhǎng)，寫了約46出歌劇及36出神劇荆秦。最著名的神劇是《彌賽亞》（Messiah）篱竭、《水上音樂》組曲(Water Music)和《皇家煙火》（Music for the Royal Fireworks）。亨德爾晚年得了眼疾雙目失明步绸。
參考資料：
