chapter 3
What Is Truth?真理是什么

For hundreds of years, philosophers battled over whether “truth” exists. The argument usually concerned Truth with a capital T, a kind of complete record of whatever was, is, or will be, error-proof, beyond doubt and dispute, a final test of the rightness or wrongness of people’s ideas and theories. 數(shù)百年來嘴纺，哲學(xué)家們一直爭論是否存在“真理”。這種辯論通常關(guān)注（大寫的）絕對真理批幌，即一種對過去、現(xiàn)在或?qū)硎鞘裁吹牟粫鲥e、不必懷疑和爭執(zhí)的完整記錄，一種對人們思想和理論之對或錯的最終檢驗(yàn)厚宰。

Those who accepted the existence of this Truth believed it was a spiritual reality, not a physical one. That is, it was not a celestial ledger or file drawer—yet it was beyond time and space. It was considered an understanding among the gods, or an idea in the mind of God, or simply the sum total of Reality. Could humans ever come to know Truth? Some said, no, never. Others said, yes but only in the afterlife. Still others said that the wisest and best of humans could catch glimpses of it and that the rest of humanity could learn about it through these special ones. 承認(rèn)這種絕對真理存在的那些人認(rèn)為，它是一種精神實(shí)在而不是物理實(shí)在。這就是說铲觉，它不是一段優(yōu)質(zhì)橫木或文件抽屜——而是超越時空的澈蝙。它被認(rèn)為是對神靈的領(lǐng)悟，或是上帝頭腦中的思想撵幽，或僅是所有實(shí)在的總和灯荧。人究竟能否認(rèn)識絕對真理？一些人說不能盐杂，永遠(yuǎn)不能逗载。另一些人說可以，但只有在來世链烈。還有一些人說厉斟，雖睿智和最優(yōu)越的人能瞥見它，而其他人則能通過這些特殊的人來了解它强衡。
Spiritual [?sp?r?t?u?l] adj. 精神的; 心靈的; 高尚的擦秽，崇高的; 宗教的;
Celestial [s??lest?l] adj. 天的，天空的;
Ledger [?l?d??] n. 分類賬;

Those who rejected this notion of an awesome, all-embracing Truth argued that it was an empty notion. How could all reality be summed up that way? More important, what possible evidence could be offered in support of its existence? Many who reasoned this way dismissed the idea of Truth as wishful thinking, a kind of philosophical security blanket. A few went further and denied even the existence of truths (no capital). 否認(rèn)這個令人敬畏漩勤、無所不包的絕對真理觀念的那些人辯稱它是一個空洞的觀念感挥。如何能以這種方式來總結(jié)所有的實(shí)在？更重要的是越败，能提供什么樣的可能證據(jù)來支持這個真理的存在触幼？許多這么想的人把絕對真理的理念當(dāng)作一廂情愿的、一種哲學(xué)保護(hù)傘而予以否定究飞。一些人走得更遠(yuǎn)置谦，甚至否認(rèn)普遍真理的存在。
Awesome [??s?m] adj. 令人敬畏的; 使人畏懼的; 可怕的; 極好的;
Dismissed [d?s'm?st] v. 解雇( dismiss的過去式和過去分詞 ); （使擊球員或球隊(duì)）退場; 使退去; 駁回;

Our age has inherited the whole argument. The focus, however, has changed. It seldom concerns Truth anymore. Even if Truth does exist, it’s of little help to us in our world and our lives because it is beyond human understanding. Even many people of strong and rather conservative religious views no longer consider the question of Truth important to the understanding or practice of their faith. 我們的時代繼承了這整個論點(diǎn)噪猾。但是霉祸，關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)卻發(fā)生了變化。它很少再關(guān)注絕對真理袱蜡。即使的確存在絕對真理丝蹭，它對我們的世界和生活也少有幫助，因?yàn)樗隽巳祟惖睦斫馄阂稀Ｉ踔猎S多持有強(qiáng)烈的和相當(dāng)保守的宗教觀點(diǎn)的人奔穿，也不再認(rèn)為絕對真理的問題對他們信仰的理解或踐行是重要的。
Inherited [?n'her?t?d] adj. 通過繼承得到的敏晤，遺傳的; 繼承權(quán)的;

Still, the question of truth, or even truths, remains, and the position we take toward this question does have an important bearing on how we conduct our thinking and acting. Unfortunately, there is a good deal of murkiness and confusion about the concept. The rest of this chapter will attempt to shed light on it. 然而贱田，（不是大寫的）真理的問題仍然存在，并且我們對這個問題所持的立場的確對我們?nèi)绾芜M(jìn)行思考和行動具有重要的影響嘴脾。不幸的是男摧，對這個概念還有許多模糊和混亂之處蔬墩。本章的其余部分將試圖予以澄清。
Bearing [?ber??] n. [機(jī)]軸承耗拓，支座; 關(guān)系; 方位; 態(tài)度拇颅，舉止;
Murkiness ['m?k?n?s] n. 陰暗; 混濁; 可疑; 黝暗;
【position 主語，does強(qiáng)調(diào)乔询，have謂語】

It’s fashionable today to believe that truth is relative and subjective. “Everyone creates his or her own truth,” the saying goes, “and what is true for you may not be true for me.” The meaning of this statement goes far beyond “It’s a free country and I can believe what I want.” The claim means that whatever a person thinks is true because he or she thinks it is. Not surprisingly, to challenge another person’s view on an issue is considered bad form. “That’s my truth you’re talking about, Buster. Show a little respect.” 今天樟插，把真理看作是相對和主觀的，已是一種時尚竿刁。俗話說：“每個人創(chuàng)造他或她自己的真理黄锤，對你是真理也許對我并不是的”這句話的含義遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超出了“這是個自由的國度，我可以相信自己想要的”這種說法食拜。于是鸵熟，這個陳述就變成了任何一個人認(rèn)為是真理的任何事情，都是因?yàn)樗蛩J(rèn)為它是真理负甸。毫不奇怪旅赢，質(zhì)疑他人對某個問題的看法令人生厭。你們正在談?wù)摰木褪俏业恼胬砘蠡蹋」恚埥o一點(diǎn)尊重短纵〈郏”

The implications of this notion are quite staggering, yet for some reason few people acknowledge them, and fewer still are interested in testing their reasonableness. One implication is that everyone is right and no one is wrong. In fact, no one can be wrong. (What an argument this would make against objective tests—true/false, multiple choice, and so on: “My answers can’t be wrong, professor. They’re my truth!”) Another is that everyone’s perception and memory work flawlessly, with never a blunder, glitch, or gaffe. And another is that no one adopts other people’s “truths.” The idea of creating truth rules out borrowing—if truth is intensely personal, each person’s truth must be unique. Let’s examine all these ideas more closely.
這個觀念的含義相當(dāng)令人驚愕，但由于某些原困香到，很少有人認(rèn)識到這些含義鱼冀，而且更少的人能有興趣檢驗(yàn)其合理性。一種含義是悠就，每個人都對千绪，無人是錯的。事實(shí)上是無人有可能出錯梗脾。（一種可反對客觀檢驗(yàn)——真實(shí)／虛假荸型、多種選擇等等的論辯：“教授，我的答案不可能錯炸茧。它們是我的真理瑞妇！”） 另一種含義就是，每個人的感知和記憶都是完美無瑕的梭冠，從不會出錯辕狰、失靈或有過失。第三種含義就是無人采納他人的“真理”控漠。創(chuàng)造真理的想法排除了借用——如果真理完全是個人的蔓倍，那每個人的真理必定是獨(dú)特的。讓我們更加仔細(xì)地考察這些觀點(diǎn)。
staggering [?st?ɡ?r??] adj. 難以置信的偶翅，令人震驚的; 蹣跚的; 猶豫的;
Flawlessly adv. 無瑕地默勾，完美地;
Blunder [?bl?nd?] vi. 犯錯誤; 踉踉蹌蹌地走; 無意中說出，漏嘴說出; 弄糟倒堕，弄錯灾测，做錯，辦錯;
Glitch [ɡl?t?] n. 小過失垦巴，差錯;
Gaffe [ɡ?f] n. 失禮媳搪，出丑;
intensely [?n?t?nsl?] adv. 強(qiáng)烈地; 極度; 劇烈地;
rule out ：排除

Where Does It All Begin?
究竟始于何處？

The idea of creating our own truth without outside influence or assistance may sound reasonable if we focus only on our adulthood. The moment we consider our childhood, however, the idea becomes suspect, because in childhood we were all dependent in every sense:physically, emotionally, and intellectually. What we knew and believed about everything was what others told us. We asked questions—”Why, Mommy?” “Why, Daddy?” Our parents answered them. We accepted those answers and made them the foundation of our belief system, no matter how elaborate it would become in adulthood.
如果我們僅僅關(guān)注成年時期骤宣，那我們不受外界影響或幫助就創(chuàng)造真理的這種想法也許聽起來就是合理的秦爆。但是，我們一考慮童年時期憔披，這種觀點(diǎn)就令人懷疑等限，因?yàn)槲覀冊谕陼r期完全依賴于每一種感覺：在生理、感情和智力上的依賴芬膝。我們了解和相信的每件事都是別人告知我們的望门。我們提問——“為什么，媽媽锰霜？”“為什么筹误，爸爸？”我們的父母作回答癣缅。我們接受這些答案厨剪，并將其作為我們信念體系的基石，無論在成年時期它會變得怎樣復(fù)雜友存。
elaborate [?'l?b?ret] adj. 精心制作的祷膳；詳盡的；煞費(fèi)苦心的

Relativists could, of course,claim that we leave all those early influences behind when we reach adulthood,but that denies the most fundamental principles of psychology. Here is how one writer explained the continuing influence of childhood experience:
當(dāng)然屡立，相對主義者可能聲稱直晨，當(dāng)我們步入成年時，會把所有這些早期影響拋在腦后侠驯，但是抡秆，這否認(rèn)了最基本的心理學(xué)原理。下面是一位作者如何解釋童年經(jīng)驗(yàn)的持續(xù)影響：

We are told about the world before we see it. We imagine most things before we experience them. And those preconceptions, unless education has made us acutely aware, govern deeply the whole process of perception. They mark out certain objects as familiar or strange, emphasizing the difference, so that the slightly familiar is seen as very familiar, and the somewhat strange as sharply alien. They are aroused by small signs, which may vary from a true index to a vague analogy. Aroused, they flood fresh vision with older images, and project into the world what has been resurrected in memory.
我們在觀察世界之前吟策，都是被告知世界是怎樣的儒士。我們在體驗(yàn)大多數(shù)事情之前，總是先想象它們檩坚。除非教育使我們敏銳地意識到這一點(diǎn)着撩，否則诅福，這些先入之見深深地控制著整個感知過程。他們把某些物體標(biāo)識為熟悉或陌生的拖叙，強(qiáng)調(diào)差異性氓润，以致把稍微熟悉視為非常熟悉，把有點(diǎn)陌生視為迥然相異薯鳍。從真實(shí)指標(biāo)到模糊類比不等的各種小跡象都能引發(fā)這些先入之見咖气。一旦發(fā)生，它們就用舊形象掩蓋新視覺挖滤，并將其投射到被激活進(jìn)入記憶的世界之中崩溪。
mark out規(guī)劃，制定
vague [ve?g] adj. 模糊的斩松；含糊的伶唯；不明確的；曖昧的
resurrect [rez?'rekt] vt. 使復(fù)活惧盹；復(fù)興乳幸；挖出vi. 復(fù)活

You have heard the old saying"seeing is believing". The reverse— believingis seeing—is equally correct. To a greater or lesser extent, what we regard as our unique perspective bears the imprint of other people’s ideas and beliefs.
你聽到過一句老話：“所見即所信【”反之也同樣正確——所信即所見粹断。在或多或少的程度上，我們視為自己獨(dú)特視角的看法都承受著他人思想和信念的印記嫡霞。
imprint [?m'pr?nt] n. 印記姿染；痕跡；特征秒际；版本說明

Imperfect Perception
不完善的感知

Is perception flawless? Hardly. For one thing, it is influenced by our desires, interests, and expectations: “From the outset perception is selective and tends to simplify the world around us. Memory continues and hastens the process.”For another, even within its limited focus, perception is often flawed. A college student who is positive that the textbook contains a certain statement answers an exam question with perfect confidence. Yet when the student gets the corrected test back and finds the question marked wrong, then hurriedly flips open the book and examines the passage again, he or she may find it says something else entirely.
感知是否完美無缺？幾乎不可能狡汉。一方面娄徊，它受到我們的欲望、興趣和期望的影響：“感知從一開始就是選擇性的盾戴，而且傾向于簡化我們周圍的世界寄锐。記憶持續(xù)并加速了此過程〖夥龋“另外橄仆，即使在有限的焦點(diǎn)中，感知也往往是有缺陷的衅斩。一位大學(xué)生非常有信心的肯定教科書的某個陳述,然后回答一道測試題盆顾。然而，當(dāng)學(xué)生得到批改后的問卷時畏梆，發(fā)現(xiàn)這道題被判為錯誤您宪，匆忙翻開書奈懒，再次查看該段落時，他或她可能會發(fā)現(xiàn)它所說的完全不同宪巨。
Imperfect [?m'p??f?kt] adj. 有缺點(diǎn)的磷杏；未完成的；半過去的捏卓；未完成時的n. 未完成體adv. 有瑕疵地极祸；有缺點(diǎn)地
Perception p?'sep?(?)n] n. 知覺；[生理] 感覺怠晴；看法遥金；洞察力；獲取
flawless ['fl??l?s] adj. 完美的龄寞；無瑕疵的汰规；無裂縫的
outset n. 開始；開端
positive ['p?z?t?v] adj. 積極的物邑；[數(shù)] 正的溜哮，[醫(yī)][化學(xué)] 陽性的；確定的色解，肯定的茂嗓；實(shí)際的，真實(shí)的科阎；絕對的n. 正數(shù)述吸；[攝] 正片
desires [d?'za?r] n. 欲望；心愿（desire的復(fù)數(shù)形式）v. 向往（desire的單三形式）
expectations [?ekspek?te??nz] n. [數(shù)] 期望锣笨；預(yù)期蝌矛；[數(shù)] 期望值（expectation的復(fù)數(shù)形式）
hasten ['he?s(?)n] vt. 加速；使趕緊错英；催促vi. 趕快入撒；急忙
flawed [fl?d] adj. 有缺陷的；有瑕疵的椭岩；有裂紋的
confidence ['k?nf?d(?)ns] n. 信心茅逮；信任；秘密adj. （美）詐騙的判哥；騙得信任的
flip [fl?p] vt. 擲献雅；輕擊vi. 用指輕彈；蹦跳adj. 無禮的塌计；輕率的n. 彈挺身；筋斗
flip open翻蓋式開啟
entirely [?n'ta??l?; en-] adv. 完全地，徹底地

Moviegoers in the 1930s and 1940s were thrilled as Tarzan uttered his famous yell and swung through the treetops to catch the villain. Tell them that Tarzan never made that yell and they’ll say, “False, we heard it with our own ears.” And yet it’s not false. According to one of the men who first played the role of Tarzan, Buster Crabbe, that yell was dubbed into the films in the studio. It was a blend of three voices—a soprano’s, a baritone’s, and a hog caller’s.
在三十年代和四十年代的承拷觯看電影的人在看到人猿泰山發(fā)出他著名的吼叫瞒渠，并蕩過樹梢抓住壞人時都非常興奮良蒸。如果告訴他們泰山從來沒有發(fā)出這樣的吼叫，他們會說：“錯了伍玖，我們用自己的耳朵聽到了嫩痰。”但這不對窍箍。據(jù)其中首批扮演泰山的演員之一伯斯特·克拉布串纺，吼叫是配音到電影中的。 這其中混合的三種聲音一個女高音椰棘、一個男中音和一個扮豬叫人纺棺。
Moviegoers常看電影的人（moviegoer的名詞復(fù)數(shù)）
thrilled [θr?ld] adj. 非常興奮的；極為激動的v. 激動（thrill的過去式）；[醫(yī)] 震顫
Tarzan ['tɑ:z?n; -z?n] n. 泰山（美國影片人猿泰山的主人公）浦妄；健壯入客、靈活的男子
utter ['?t?] vt. 發(fā)出译红，表達(dá)；發(fā)射adj. 完全的；徹底的；無條件的n. (Utter)人名糊啡；(德、芬)烏特
villain ['v?l?n] n. 壞人吁津，惡棍棚蓄；戲劇、小說中的反派角色碍脏；頑童梭依；罪犯n. (Villain)人名；(法)維蘭
yell [j?l] vi. 大叫典尾，叫喊n. 喊聲睛挚，叫聲vt. 喊叫著說
dub [d?b] vt. 配音；輕點(diǎn)急黎；打擊；授予稱號n. 笨蛋侧到；鼓聲n. (Dub)人名勃教；(英、俄匠抗、捷故源、匈)杜布；(法)迪布
blend [blend] vt. 混合vi. 混合汞贸；協(xié)調(diào)n. 混合绳军；摻合物
soprano [s?'prɑ?n??] n. 女高音印机；最高音部；女高音歌手adj. 女高音的门驾；童聲高音的n. (Soprano)人名射赛；(意)索普拉諾
baritone ['b?r?t??n] n. 男中音；男中音歌手adj. 男中音的
hog [h?g] n. 豬奶是，象豬般的人楣责；貪婪者t. 使拱起vi. 拱起n. (Hog)人名；(法)奧格
caller ['k??l?] n. 訪客聂沙；[通信] 呼叫者秆麸；打電話者；召集員adj. 新鮮的n. (Caller)人名及汉；(西)卡列爾

At least a dozen times every weekend from September to January, the imperfection of human observation is underlined by that marvel of technology, the instant replay. Is there a football fan anywhere who doesn’t occasionally scream, “Bad call!” only to be proved wrong a moment later? We can be sure enough to bet a week’s wages that the pass receiver’s feet came down inbounds or that the running back’s knee hit the ground before the ball came loose. And then the replay shows us how erroneous our initial perception was.
從9月到次年1月沮趣，每個周末至少有十幾次通過瞬間回放這種令人驚奇的技術(shù)凸顯出人類觀察的不完善。 有沒有球迷在叫嚷著“黑哨”片刻后就被證明是錯誤的坷随？我們可以肯定打賭一周的工資說房铭，在求出手之前接球員的腳已經(jīng)在界內(nèi)或跑鋒膝蓋已經(jīng)觸地。然而瞬間回放向我展示最初的感知是錯誤的甸箱。
dozen ['d?z(?)n] n. 十二個育叁，一打adj. 一打的
weekend [wi?k??nd] n. 周末，周末休假芍殖；周末聚會adj. 周末的豪嗽，周末用的vi. 度周末
underlined ['?nd??la?nd] adj. 下劃線的
marvel ['mɑ?v(?)l] n. 奇跡vt. 對…感到驚異vi. 感到驚訝n. (Marvel)人名；(英)馬弗爾豌骏；漫威漫畫
instant ['?nst(?)nt] adj. 立即的龟梦；緊急的；緊迫的n. 瞬間窃躲；立即计贰；片刻
occasionally [??ke??n?li] adv. 偶爾；間或
inbounds [in'baundz] adj. 發(fā)邊線球的
erroneous [?'r??n??s; e-] adj. 錯誤的蒂窒；不正確的

The vagaries of perception have long been noted by those who deal with human testimony—notably, trial lawyers, police officers, and psychologists. It is well established that a number of factors can make us see and hear inaccurately. Darkness, cloudy conditions, or distance from what we are witnessing may obscure our vision. We may be distracted at a crucial moment. If we are tired or in the grip of powerful emotions such as fear or anger, our normal perceptiveness may be significantly diminished. Also, perception may be intermingled with interpretation—the expectation that an event will unfold in a certain way may color our perception of the way the event actually unfolds. Loyalty and affection toward the people or things involved may distort our vision as well. If someone we dislike speaks in a loud voice and is animated, we may regard that person as showing off to get attention. But if a friend behaves in the same way, we may regard him or her as vivacious and extroverted.
處理人的證詞的人躁倒，尤其是出庭律師、警察和心理學(xué)家洒琢，很久以前就已經(jīng)注意到人的感知的特別秧秉。許多因素已經(jīng)確定可以導(dǎo)致我們視覺、聽覺不準(zhǔn)確衰抑。黑暗象迎、多云天氣或我們離目標(biāo)的距離遠(yuǎn)都可能模糊我們的視覺。我們可能會在關(guān)鍵時刻分心呛踊。如果我們厭倦或被強(qiáng)大情緒（如恐懼或憤怒）控制砾淌，我們的正常感知力可能會大大減弱啦撮。此外，感知可能與解釋交織–對事件的期望可能影響我們對事件實(shí)際進(jìn)展方式的感知汪厨。對所涉及的人或事物的忠誠和熱愛也會扭曲我們的視覺赃春。如果我們不喜歡的人神氣活現(xiàn)大聲說話，我們可能會認(rèn)為這個人是故意炫耀以引起注意骄崩。 但是聘鳞，如果一個朋友以同樣的方式行事，那我們可能認(rèn)為他或她是活潑的和外向的要拂。
vagaries ['veig?riz] n. 異常行為（vagary的復(fù)數(shù)形式）抠璃；奇特
testimony ['test?m?n?] n. [法] 證詞，證言脱惰；證據(jù)
notably ['n??t?bl?] adv. 顯著地搏嗡；尤其
trial lawyer專門出庭辯護(hù)的律師
psychologists [sai'k?led?ist] n. [心理] 心理學(xué)家（psychologist的復(fù)數(shù)形式）
inaccurately [in'?kjuritli] adv. 不準(zhǔn)確地；不正確地
obscure [?b'skj??] adj. 昏暗的拉一，朦朧的采盒；晦澀的，不清楚的蔚润；隱蔽的磅氨；不著名的，無名的vt. 使…模糊不清嫡纠，掩蓋烦租；隱藏；使難理解n. 某種模糊的或不清楚的東西
distracted [d?'str?kt?d] adj. 心煩意亂的除盏；思想不集中的v. 分心（distract的過去式）
crucial ['kru??(?)l] adj. 重要的叉橱；決定性的；定局的者蠕；決斷的
grip gr?p] n. 緊握窃祝；柄；支配踱侣；握拍方式粪小；拍柄繃帶vt. 緊握；夾緊vi. 抓住n. (Grip)人名抡句；(英探膊、瑞典)格里普
perceptiveness [,p?:sep'tivnis] n. 洞察力；感知力玉转；直覺
significantly [s?g'n?f?k(?)ntl?] adv. 顯著地；相當(dāng)數(shù)量地
intermingle [?nt?'m??g(?)l] vt. 使混合殴蹄；使攙和vi. 混合究抓；摻雜
distort [d?'st??t] vt. 扭曲猾担；使失真；曲解vi. 扭曲刺下；變形
animated ['?n?me?t?d] adj. 活生生的绑嘹；活潑的；愉快的vt. 使…有生氣（animate的過去式）
vivacious [v?'ve???s; va?-] adj. 活潑的橘茉；快活的工腋；有生氣的
extroverted ['ekstr??v??t?d] adj. 性格外向的；外向性的畅卓；喜社交的
【perception may be intermingled with interpretation—the expectation that an event will unfold in a certain way may color our perception of the way the event actually unfolds.】
perception主語擅腰，intermingle謂語，interpretation賓語翁潘，--后是定語從句趁冈，從句里面， expectation是主語拜马，color是謂語 ,perception是賓語渗勘。

Imperfect Memory
不完善的記憶

Even when our perception is initially flawless, our memory often distorts the data. We forget details, and when later attempting to recall what happened we resort to imagination to fill in the blanks. Though we may at first be aware that such a process of reconstruction is occurring, this awareness soon fades, and we come to believe we are remembering the original perception. As psychologist William James explained,
即使我們的感知最初是正確無誤的，我們的記憶也經(jīng)常扭曲它俩莽。我們忘記了細(xì)節(jié)旺坠，當(dāng)后來試圖回想發(fā)生什么時，我們就求助想象來填充這些空白扮超。雖然我們可能最初意識到這樣一種重建過程在發(fā)生取刃，但這種意識很快就消失了，我們開始相信自己記起來的正是最初的感知瞒津。正如心理學(xué)家威 廉-詹姆斯( William Jams)所解釋的：

The most frequent source of false memory is the accounts we give to others of our experiences. Such acts we almost always make more simple and more interesting than the truth. We quote what we should have said or done rather than what we really said or did; and in the first telling we may be fully aware of the distinction, but [before] long the fiction expels the reality from memory and [replaces it]. We think of what we wish had happened, of possible [interpretations] of acts, and soon we are unable to distinguish between things that actually happened and our own thoughts about what might have occurred. Our wishes, hopes, and sometimes fears are the controlling factor.3 虛假記憶最常兄的來源是我們向他人對自己的經(jīng)驗(yàn)所作的解釋蝉衣。對這樣的行為我們幾乎總是做得比真實(shí)情況更簡單、更有趣巷蚪。我們引用我們應(yīng)該說和應(yīng)該做的病毡，而不是我們實(shí)際說或?qū)嶋H做的；在第一講述中屁柏，我們也許會充分意識到這種區(qū)別啦膜，但不久[以 后]，虛構(gòu)就把真實(shí)從記憶中驅(qū)避出去并[取代了它]淌喻。我們以為自己所希望的事情已經(jīng)發(fā)生僧家，并考慮行為的可能[解釋]，很快裸删，我們 就不能把實(shí)際發(fā)生的與我們關(guān)于可能發(fā)生的事情的想法區(qū)別開來八拱。我們的愿望、期望，有時還有恐懼都是控制的因素肌稻。

As if this weren’t enough, memory is vulnerable to contamination from outside the mind. Memory expert Elizabeth Loftus showed children a one-minute film and then asked, “Did you see a bear?” or “Did you see a boat?” They remembered seeing them, even though no bears or boats were in the film. She also showed adults a film of an auto accident and then asked them about it. By using the word “smash” instead of “hit,” she was able to change the viewers’ estimate of the cars’ speed and to create a memory of broken glass where there was none. In another experiment, Loftus asked the parents of college students to describe some events from their sons’ and daughters’ childhoods. Then she talked with each student about those events but added a fake event or two. With only slight coaxing, the students “remembered” the fake events, were able to elaborate on the details, and in some cases refused to believe they were fake even when Loftus explained what she had done.
似乎這還不夠清蚀，記憶還易受自己頭腦以外的情事所污染。記憶研究專家 伊麗莎白·洛夫特斯(Elizaheth Loftus)給孩子們看了一分鐘的短片并且問他們：“你們看見熊了嗎爹谭？”或者“你們看見船了嗎枷邪？”。孩子們說記得看見過诺凡，即使影片中并沒有熊或者船东揣。她還向成年人展示了一場汽車事故的影片，然后問他們腹泌，通過使用“粉碎”而不是“打擊”這個詞嘶卧，她能夠改變觀眾對汽車速度的估計，并創(chuàng)造一個打碎玻璃碎片的記憶真屯。在另外一個實(shí)驗(yàn)中脸候，杰出的記憶研究專家 伊麗莎白·洛夫特斯(Elizaheth Loftus)要求大學(xué)生的父母描述自己兒女童 年時期的一些事情。然后她跟每個學(xué)生談?wù)撨@些事绑蔫，但同時添加一兩件捏 造的事件运沦。僅稍微哄騙一下，學(xué)生就“記住了”這些捏造的事件配深，并能闡述細(xì)節(jié)携添，而且在某些情況下，即使洛夫特斯解釋自己所做的事情篓叶，他們也拒不相信它們是捏造的烈掠。

Deficient Information
有缺陷的信息

The quality of a belief depends to a considerable extent on the quality of the information that backs it up. Because it’s a big world and reality has many faces, it’s easy for us to be misinformed. How many drivers take the wrong turn because of faulty directions? How many people get on the wrong bus or train? How many car owners put too much or too little air in their tires on the advice of some service station attendant? And, if misinformation is common enough in such relatively simple matters, how much more common is it in complex matters like law and medicine and government and religion?
信念的質(zhì)量在很大程度上取決于支持它的信息的質(zhì)量。因?yàn)樗且粋€龐大的世界缸托，現(xiàn)實(shí)有很多種面孔左敌，我們很容易被誤導(dǎo)。有多少人上錯巴士或火車俐镐？有多少車主在服務(wù)站工作人員的建議下給車胎打多了氣或打少了氣矫限？而且，如果誤導(dǎo)信息在如此簡單的事情中常見佩抹，那么它要在復(fù)雜事情例如法律叼风、醫(yī)藥、政府和宗教中會多普遍棍苹？
deficient [d?'f??(?)nt] adj. 不足的无宿；有缺陷的；不充分的
considerable [k?n's?d(?)r?b(?)l] adj. 相當(dāng)大的枢里；重要的孽鸡，值得考慮的
extent [?k'stent; ek-] n. 程度蹂午；范圍；長度
misinform [m?s?n'f??m] vt. 誤傳彬碱；提供錯誤消息
matters ['m?t?z] n. 事項(xiàng)画侣；事件；事態(tài)堡妒；情事（matter的復(fù)數(shù)）n. (Matters)人名；(英)馬特斯
religion [r?'l?d?(?)n] n. 宗教溉卓；宗教信仰

It’s possible, of course, to devote a lifetime of study to a particular field. But not even those who make that kind of commitment can know everything about their subject. Things keep happening too fast. They occur whether we’re watching or not. There’s no way to turn them off when we take a coffee break or go to the bathroom. The college student who hasn’t been home in three months may be able to picture the neighbor’s elm tree vividly, yet it may have been cut down two months ago. The soldier may have total recall of his hometown—every sight and sound and smell—and return home to find half of Main Street sacrificed to urban renewal, the old high school hangout closed, and a new car in his best friend’s driveway.
當(dāng)然皮迟，對一個特定領(lǐng)域的研究可能需要投入一生的學(xué)習(xí)。但是桑寨，即使這樣的人也無法了解自己學(xué)科所有事情伏尼。事情一直在變化，無論我們是否看都會發(fā)生尉尾。當(dāng)我們喝咖啡小憩或去洗手間時爆阶，并沒有辦法使其終止。離家三個月的大學(xué)生可能會生動地描繪鄰居的榆樹沙咏，但它可能兩個月前前已經(jīng)被砍掉了辨图。士兵可能完整回憶起自己的家鄉(xiāng)一切，每一個景象肢藐、聲和氣味故河，回到家才發(fā)現(xiàn)一半主街道的已經(jīng)比城市化改變，老中學(xué)已經(jīng)關(guān)閉吆豹，有一輛新車停止在他最好的朋友門前車道上鱼的。
devote [d?'v??t] vt. 致力于；奉獻(xiàn)
commitment [k?'m?tm(?)nt] n. 承諾痘煤，保證凑阶；委托；承擔(dān)義務(wù)衷快；獻(xiàn)身
occur [?'k??] vi. 發(fā)生宙橱；出現(xiàn)；存在
elm [elm] n. [林] 榆樹烦磁；榆木n. (Elm)人名养匈；(英、法都伪、德呕乎、丹、瑞典)埃爾姆adj. 榆樹的陨晶；榆木的
vividly adv. 生動地猬仁；強(qiáng)烈地
sacrificed犧牲帝璧，獻(xiàn)出（ sacrifice的過去式和過去分詞 ）
urban ['??b(?)n] adj. 城市的；住在都市的n. (Urban)人名湿刽；(西)烏爾萬的烁；(斯洛伐)烏爾班；(德诈闺、俄渴庆、羅、匈雅镊、塞襟雷、波、捷仁烹、瑞典耸弄、意) 烏爾班；(英)厄本卓缰；(法)于爾邦
renewal [r?'nju??l] n. 更新计呈，恢復(fù)；復(fù)興征唬；補(bǔ)充捌显；革新；續(xù)借总寒；重申
hangout ['h??a?t] n. 巢穴苇瓣，（流氓）住所vt. 故意泄露
Even the Wisest Can Err
即使最明智的人也會出錯

So far, we’ve established that people can be mistaken in what they perceive and remember and that the information they receive can be faulty or incomplete. But these matters concern individuals. What of group judgment—the carefully analyzed observations of the best thinkers, the wisest men and women of the time? Is that record better?Happily, it is. But it, too, leaves a lot to be desired.
目前我們已經(jīng)確認(rèn)，人們在自己所感知和記憶的事情上有可能出錯偿乖，他們所接收的信息可能是錯誤或不完整的击罪。但是，這些事關(guān)涉到個人贪薪。然而媳禁，群體判斷——當(dāng)代最優(yōu)秀的思想家們，最明智的男人和女人們的仔細(xì)分析觀察——的情況又怎么樣呢画切？其記錄更好些嗎竣稽？讓人高興的是，它是好些霍弹。但是毫别，它也不盡如人意。
【 we’ve established that people can be mistaken in what they perceive and remember and that the information they receive can be faulty or incomplete.】
that people can be mistaken in what they perceive and remember,與 that the information they receive can be faulty or incomplete都是賓語從句典格。

All too often, what is taken as truth one day by the most respected minds is proved erroneous the next. You undoubtedly know of some examples. In the early seventeenth century, when Galileo suggested that the sun is the center of our solar system, he was charged with heresy, imprisoned, and pressured to renounce his error. The“truth” of that time, accepted by every scientist worthy of the name, was that the earth was the center of the solar system.
經(jīng)常岛宦，最受人尊重的頭腦在某日視為真理的事，在后來被證明是錯誤的耍缴。毫無疑問砾肺，你知道一些這樣的例子挽霉。在17世紀(jì)早期，當(dāng)伽利略(Galileo)認(rèn)為太陽是我們太陽系的中心時变汪，他被指控為異端侠坎，遭到監(jiān)禁，并迫使其聲明放棄自己的錯誤裙盾。那時被每個稱得上偉大的科學(xué)家接受的“真理”：地球乃是太陽系的中心实胸。

Here are some other examples you may not have heard about in which the “truth” turned out not to be true:
這里還有其他一些你也許沒聽說過的“真理”變成非真理的例子。

? For a long time surgeons used talc on the rubber gloves they wore while performing surgery. Then they discovered it could be poisonous. So they switched to starch, only to find that it, too, could have a toxic effect on surgical patients.
長期以來番官，外科醫(yī)生在做手術(shù)時童芹，把滑石粉涂在橡膠手套上。然后他們發(fā)現(xiàn)它可能有毒鲤拿。于是，他們轉(zhuǎn)向淀粉署咽，不料卻發(fā)現(xiàn)它可能對病人也有毒性作用近顷。
only to find 結(jié)果卻發(fā)現(xiàn)（表達(dá)出人意料或不愉快的意思）

? Film authorities were certain they were familiar with all the films the late Charlie Chaplin ever made. Then, in 1982, a previously unknown film was discovered in a British screen archive vault.
? 電影權(quán)威們確信熟悉已故的查理·卓別林(Charlie Chaplin)出演的所有電影。而在1982年宁否，一部此前不為人知的電影在英國電影檔案館被發(fā)現(xiàn)窒升。

? For hundreds of years historians believed that although the people of Pompeii had been trapped by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79, the people of neighboring Herculaneum had escaped. Then the discovery of eighty bodies (and the hint of hundreds more) under the volcanic ash revealed that many from Herculaneum had also been trapped.
? 幾百年來，歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為龐培( Pompeii)人在公元79年的維蘇威(Vesuvius)火山爆發(fā)中被埋沒慕匠，而鄰近的赫庫蘭尼姆(Herculaneum)屆民則逃脫了饱须。后來在火山灰下發(fā)現(xiàn)的80具尸體（以及暗示有數(shù)百人被埋）表明許多赫庫蘭尼姆人也被埋沒。

? Your grandparents probably learned that there are eight planets in our solar system. Since Pluto was discovered in 1930, your parents and you learned there are nine. Then Joseph L.Brady of the University of California suggested there might be ten. But more recently Pluto was removed from the list.
? 你的祖父母可能知道我們的太陽系有8大行星台谊。自1930年發(fā)現(xiàn)冥王星以來蓉媳，你和父母知道有9大行星。但是锅铅，如果加利福尼亞大學(xué)約瑟夫·布雷迪(Joseph L．Brady)觀察正確的話酪呻，你的孩子將知道有十大行星，可是最近盐须，冥王星卻從名單中剔除了玩荠。

? After morphine was used by doctors for some years as a pain killer, it was found to be addictive. The search began for a nonaddictive substitute. What was found to take its place?Heroin!
? 醫(yī)生用嗎啡做止痛藥多年后，發(fā)現(xiàn)人對它有依賴性堂污。于是搜尋沒有依賴性的替代物羹令。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)的替代物是什么呢捌治？海洛因。

Truth Is Discovered, Not Created
真理是發(fā)現(xiàn)的女坑，不是創(chuàng)造的

Let’s review what our evaluation has revealed. First, our ideas and beliefs are unavoidably influenced by other people’s, particularly in childhood. Second, perception and memory are imperfect. Third, our information can be inaccurate or incomplete. Add to this the fact, noted in Chapter 2, that some people’s thinking skills are woefully meager and/or ineffectively used, and the idea that “everyone creates his or her own truth” becomes laughable. We do create something, all right, but it is not truth. It is beliefs, ideas that we accept as true but that could easily be false.
讓我們回顧一下我們的評估所揭示的內(nèi)容。首先统舀，我們的思想和信念不可避免地受到別人的影響堂飞，特別是在童年時期灌旧。第二，感知和記憶是不完美的绰筛。第三枢泰，我們的信息可能不準(zhǔn)確或不完整。另外铝噩，在第二章中也提到衡蚂，有些人的思維技能很不幸的貧乏且（或）被無效地使用，而且“每個人都創(chuàng)造自己的真理”的想法也讓人感到可笑骏庸。我們確實(shí)創(chuàng)造了一些事情毛甲，沒錯，但它并不是真理具被。它是信念玻募，即我們信以為真卻可能錯誤的想法。
Truth [tru?θ] n. 真理一姿；事實(shí)七咧；誠實(shí)；實(shí)質(zhì)
evaluation [??v?lju?e??n] n. 評價叮叹；[審計] 評估艾栋；估價；求值
revealed [r?'vil] v. 透露（reveal的過去式）蛉顽；顯示
woefully ['w?uf?li] adv. 悲傷地蝗砾；不幸地；使人痛苦地
meager ['mig?] adj. 貧乏的携冤；瘦的n. 兆
ineffectively adv. 無效地悼粮；無用地；無能地
laughable ['lɑ?f?b(?)l] adj. 有趣的曾棕，可笑的

What, then, is the most reasonable view of truth? The truth about something is what is so about it—the facts in their exact arrangement and proportions. Our beliefs and assertions are true when they correspond to that reality and false when they do not.
那么矮锈，最合理的真理觀是什么？關(guān)于某事的真理就是睁蕾，它原本是什么-事實(shí)的準(zhǔn)確位置及比例苞笨。我們的信念和主張?jiān)诜险鎸?shí)情況是正確的，不符合真實(shí)情況是錯誤的子眶。
exact [?g'z?kt; eg-] adj. 準(zhǔn)確的瀑凝，精密的；精確的vt. 要求臭杰；強(qiáng)求粤咪；急需vi. 勒索錢財
arrangement [?'re?n(d)?m(?)nt] n. 布置；整理渴杆；準(zhǔn)備
proportions [pr?'p?:??ns] n. [數(shù)] 比例寥枝；大邢芩（proportion的復(fù)數(shù)形式）
correspond [k?r?'sp?nd] vi. 符合，一致囊拜；相應(yīng)某筐；通信

Did time run out before the basketball player got the shot off? How does gravity work? Who stole your hubcaps? Are there time/space limits to the universe? Who started the argument between you and your neighbor last weekend? Have you been working up to your potential in this course? To look for the truth in such matters is to look for the answer that fits the facts, the correct answer.
籃球運(yùn)動員在跳投之前時間是否超時？重力如何作用冠跷？誰偷走你的汽車輪轂南誊？宇宙有時間/空間限制嗎？上個周末蜜托，你和你的鄰居誰先開始爭論抄囚？你在這門課程中激發(fā)了你的潛能嗎？在這樣的事情中尋找真相橄务，是為了尋找符合事實(shí)的答案幔托，即正確答案。
gravity ['gr?v?t?] n. 重力蜂挪，地心引力重挑；嚴(yán)重性；莊嚴(yán)
hubcaps n. 輪轂锅劝；自以為了不起的人（hubcap的復(fù)數(shù)）
work up to逐漸達(dá)到；逐步發(fā)展
potential [p??ten?l] n. 潛能蟆湖；可能性故爵；[電] 電勢adj. 潛在的；可能的隅津；勢的
course [k??s] n. 科目诬垂；課程；過程伦仍；進(jìn)程结窘；道路；路線充蓝，航向隧枫；一道菜vt. 追趕；跑過vi. 指引航線谓苟；快跑

Truth is apprehended by discovery, a process that favors the curious and the diligent. Truth does not depend on our acknowledgment of it, nor is it in any way altered by our ignorance or transformed by our wishful thinking. King Tut’s tomb did not spring into existence when archaeologists dug it up; it was there waiting to be discovered. Art forgeries are not genuine when people are fooled and then fake when the deception is revealed. Cigarette smoking is not rendered harmless to our health because we would prefer it to be so.
真理是通過發(fā)現(xiàn)而被掌握的官脓，發(fā)現(xiàn)是一個偏好好奇和勤奮的過程。真理并不取決于我們的承認(rèn)涝焙，也不因?yàn)槲覀兊臒o知而改變卑笨，也不因?yàn)槲覀円粠樵付兓．?dāng)考古學(xué)家挖掘圖特王墓時仑撞，它不會自己動手冒出來赤兴；它在那里等待被發(fā)現(xiàn)妖滔。藝術(shù)贗品不會在人們受騙時變成真貨，也不會在騙局被揭穿時顯示為假貨桶良。吸煙不會因?yàn)槲覀兿Ｍ鼈儗】禑o害就對我們健康無害座舍。
apprehended [?pr?'hend] vt. 理解；逮捕艺普；憂慮vi. 理解簸州；擔(dān)心
favors ['fev?z] n. 支持；幫忙（favor的復(fù)數(shù)）歧譬；好意v. 支持岸浑；喜歡；證實(shí)（favor的三單形式）n. (Favors)人名瑰步；(英)費(fèi)沃斯
curious ['kj??r??s] adj. 好奇的矢洲，有求知欲的；古怪的缩焦；愛挑剔的
diligent ['d?l?d?(?)nt] adj. 勤勉的读虏；用功的，費(fèi)盡心血的n. (Diligent)人名袁滥；(法)迪利讓
depend on取決于盖桥；依賴；依靠
acknowledgment [?k'n?l?d?m?nt] n. 感謝题翻；承認(rèn)揩徊；承認(rèn)書
ignorance ['?gn(?)r(?)ns] n. 無知，愚昧嵌赠；不知塑荒，不懂
archaeologist [,ɑ?k?'?l?d??st] n. 考古學(xué)家
forgery ['f??d?(?)r?] n. 偽造；偽造罪姜挺；偽造物
genuine ['d?enj??n] adj. 真實(shí)的齿税，真正的；誠懇的
deception [d?'sep?(?)n] n. 欺騙炊豪，欺詐凌箕；騙術(shù)
revealed [r?'vil] v. 透露（reveal的過去式）；顯示
rendered adj. 已渲染的v. 提出词渤；描繪（render的過去分詞）陌知；放棄；報答掖肋；歸還仆葡；宣布；提取脂肪
harmless ['hɑ:ml?s] adj. 無害的；無惡意的

Much of the confusion about truth arises from complex situations in which the truth is difficult to ascertain or express. Consider a question like Are there really UFOs that are piloted by extraterrestrial beings? Although the question is often hotly debated and people make assertions that purport to express the truth, there is not yet sufficient evidence to say we know the truth about UFOs. However, that doesn’t mean there is no truth about them or that people who affirm their existence and people who deny it are equally correct. It means that whatever the truth is, we do not yet possess it.
關(guān)于真理的許多困惑來自于難以確定或表達(dá)的復(fù)雜情況沿盅。思考一個問題把篓，是否真的有外星人駕駛的不明飛行物？雖然這個問題經(jīng)常被激烈的辯論腰涧，人們作出斷言意圖表達(dá)真相韧掩，但還沒有足夠的證據(jù)表明我們知道有關(guān)不明飛行物的真相。然而窖铡，這并不意味著沒有關(guān)于他們的真相疗锐，也不意味著肯定的存在的人和否認(rèn)其存在的人同樣正確。這意味著無論真相是什么费彼，我們現(xiàn)在還沒掌握滑臊。
ascertain [,?s?'te?n] vt. 確定；查明箍铲；探知
express [?k'spres; ek-] vt. 表達(dá)雇卷；快遞adj. 明確的；迅速的颠猴；專門的n. 快車关划，快遞，專使翘瓮；捷運(yùn)公司
piloted ['pail?tid] adj. 有人駕駛的n. 指導(dǎo)（pilot過去式）
extraterrestrial [,ekstr?t?'restr??l] adj. 地球外的n. 天外來客
purport [p?'p??t] n. 意義贮折，主旨；意圖vt. 聲稱资盅；意圖调榄；意指；打算
affirm [?'f??m] vt. 肯定律姨；斷言vi. 確認(rèn)振峻；斷言
sufficient [s?'f??(?)nt] adj. 足夠的臼疫；充分的
possess [p?'zes] vt. 控制择份；使掌握；持有烫堤；迷兹俑稀；擁有鸽斟，具備
【 However, that doesn’t mean there is no truth about them or that people who affirm their existence and people who deny it are equally correct. 】
there is no truth about them拔创，和， that people who affirm their existence and people who deny it are equally correct都是賓語富蓄，其中后一句的who affirm their existence and people who deny it 是people的定語從句剩燥。

Similar difficulty arises from many psychological and philosophical questions—for example: Why are some people heterosexual and others homosexual? Is the cause of criminality genetic or environmental or a combination of the two? Are humans inherently violent? Is there an afterlife? What constitutes success? The answers to these questions, and to many of the issues you will encounter in the applications in this book, will often be incomplete or tentative. Yet that fact should not shake your conviction that there are truths to be discovered.
類似的困難來自許多心理學(xué)和哲學(xué)問題——例如：為什么有些人是異性戀，有些人是同性戀？犯罪的原因是遺傳或環(huán)境灭红，還是兩者的結(jié)合侣滩？人類天生是暴力的嗎？有來世嗎变擒？成功的構(gòu)成是什么君珠？這些問題以及您在本書應(yīng)用練習(xí)中遇到的許多問題的答案往往是不完整的或暫時性的。 然而娇斑，這個事實(shí)不應(yīng)該動搖你存在待發(fā)現(xiàn)真理的信念策添。
philosophical [f?l?'s?f?k(?)l] adj. 哲學(xué)的（等于philosophic）；冷靜的
heterosexual [het(?)r?(?)'seksj??l; -???l] adj. 異性的毫缆；異性戀的n. 異性戀的人
homosexual [,h?m?(?)'sek???l; ,h??m-; -sj??l] n. 同性戀者adj. 同性戀的
criminality [,kr?m?'n?l?t?] n. 有罪唯竹，犯罪；犯罪行為
genetic [d??'net?k] adj. 遺傳的悔醋；基因的摩窃；起源的
combination [k?mb?'ne??(?)n] . 結(jié)合；組合芬骄；聯(lián)合猾愿；[化學(xué)] 化合
inherently [?n?h??r?ntl?] adv. 內(nèi)在地；固有地账阻；天性地
afterlife ['ɑ?ft?la?f] n. 來世蒂秘；死后的生活
constitutes v. 構(gòu)成（constitute的單三形式）；組成
encounter [?n'ka?nt?; en-] vt. 遭遇淘太，邂逅姻僧；遇到n. 遭遇，偶然碰見vi. 遭遇蒲牧；偶然相遇
tentative ['tent?t?v] adj. 試驗(yàn)性的撇贺，暫定的；躊躇的n. 假設(shè)冰抢，試驗(yàn)
conviction [k?n'v?k?(?)n] n. 定罪松嘶；確信；證明有罪挎扰；確信翠订，堅(jiān)定的信仰

When planes crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, killing several thousand people, the event was officially classified as a terrorist attack. But before long, a very different theory was advanced—that individuals in the highest levels of the U.S. government had planned and executed the crashes to provide an excuse for attacking Iraq. This conspiracy theory gained a number of well-known supporters, including movie and television stars and at least one member of Congress, and was disseminated around the world. In France, for example, a book supporting the theory became a best-seller. The issue became the subject of international debate—in some quarters, people are still divided in their views. But to my knowledge, not a single individual, in this country or abroad, took the position that both views are correct—that is, that each side is entitled to its own truth. If anyone had, he or she would have been attacked by both camps for talking nonsense and trivializing an important issue. When it comes to significant events like 9/11, people want to know the truth, what really happened.
2001年9月11日飛機(jī)撞擊世界貿(mào)易中心雙塔和五角大樓，造成數(shù)千人死亡遵倦，這一事件被正式認(rèn)定為恐怖襲擊事件尽超。但是不久之后，一個不同的理論被提出——美國政府最高級人員策劃并執(zhí)行了這次撞擊梧躺，從而為攻擊伊拉克提供借口似谁。這個陰謀論得到了一些知名的支持者，包括電影和電視明星，至少一位國會議員巩踏，并在全世界傳播斜筐。例如，在法國蛀缝，支持這一理論的書成為暢銷書顷链。這個問題成為國際爭論的主題——在某些方面，人們看法仍然存在分歧屈梁。但據(jù)我所知嗤练，在國內(nèi)或國外，還沒有一個人認(rèn)為這兩個觀點(diǎn)都是正確的——也就是說在讶，每個人都有權(quán)得到自己的真相煞抬。如果有人被兩個陣營攻擊，那么他或她一定是在胡說八道或貶低重要問題构哺。當(dāng)涉及重大事件革答，如911，人們想知道真相曙强，真正發(fā)生了什么残拐。
Pentagon ['pent?ɡ(?)n] n. 五角形
conspiracy [k?n'sp?r?s?] n. 陰謀；共謀碟嘴；陰謀集團(tuán)
Congress ['k??gres] n. 國會溪食；代表大會；會議娜扇；社交
disseminated [d?'sem?ne?t?d] adj. 浸染的错沃；散播性的v. 散布（disseminate的過去分詞）；撒播
debate [d?'be?t] vt. 辯論雀瓢，爭論枢析，討論vi. 辯論，爭論刃麸，討論n. 辯論醒叁；辯論會
entitled [?n'ta?tl] adj. 有資格的；給與名稱的v. 給…權(quán)利嫌蚤；給…定書名辐益；授…以榮譽(yù)（entitle的過去分詞）
nonsense ['n?ns(?)ns] n. 胡說断傲；廢話adj. 荒謬的int. 胡說脱吱！
trivialize ['tr?v??la?z] vt. 使平凡；使瑣碎
significant [s?g'n?f?k(?)nt] adj. 重大的认罩；有效的箱蝠；有意義的；值得注意的；意味深長的n. 象征宦搬；有意義的事物

Having the right frame of mind can make your pursuit of the truth less burdensome and give it the sense of adventure that the great thinkers in history experienced. A good way to begin is to keep the following thought in mind: “I know I have limitations and can easily be mistaken. And surely I’ll never find all the answers I’d like to. But I can observe a little more accurately, weigh things a little more thoroughly, and make up my mind a little more carefully. If I do so, I’ll be a little closer to the truth.”
擁有恰當(dāng)?shù)男木晨梢允鼓銓φ胬淼淖非蟛荒敲簇?fù)擔(dān)沉重牙瓢，并賦予其歷史上偉大的思想家所體驗(yàn)的冒險感。良好的開端是以下思想：“我知道我有局限并且容易犯錯间校。當(dāng)然矾克，我將永遠(yuǎn)都不會找到我想知道的所有答案。但是我可以更準(zhǔn)確地觀察憔足，更徹底地衡量問題胁附，并更加仔細(xì)地做決定。如果我這樣做滓彰，我會更接近真理控妻。”
pursuit [p?'sju?t] n. 追趕揭绑，追求弓候；職業(yè)，工作
burdensome ['b??dns(?)m] adj. 繁重的他匪；累贅的菇存；惱人的
adventure [?d'vent??] n. 冒險；冒險精神邦蜜；投機(jī)活動vt. 冒險撰筷；大膽說出vi. 冒險
thoroughly [?θ?r?li] adv. 徹底地，完全地
make up my mind下定決心

That’s far different from saying, “Everyone makes his or her own truth” or “It all depends on how you look at it.” And it is much more reasonable.
這就迥異于下述說法：“每個人都創(chuàng)造自己的真理”或“這一切都取決于你如何看待”畦徘，而且這種態(tài)度要更為合理毕籽。
Understanding Cause and Effect
了解因果關(guān)系

Some of the most difficult challenges in discovering truth occur in determining cause-and-effect relationships. Unfortunately, mistakes are common in such matters. One mistake is to see cause-and-effect relationships where there are none. Another is to see only the simple and obvious cause-and-effect relationships and miss the complex or subtle ones. A third is to believe that causation is relevant only to material forces and is unrelated to human affairs. To avoid such confusion, four facts must be understood:
發(fā)現(xiàn)真相的最困難挑戰(zhàn)就是確定因果關(guān)系。而不幸的是井辆，在這種事情上犯錯誤是很常見的关筒。一種錯誤是在沒有因果關(guān)系的事情上看到因果關(guān)系。另一種錯誤是只看到簡單明了的因果關(guān)系杯缺，而忽略了復(fù)雜或微妙的關(guān)系蒸播。第三種錯誤認(rèn)為，因果關(guān)系只與物質(zhì)因素有關(guān)萍肆，與人類主觀意識無關(guān)袍榆。為了避免這種混亂，必須理解四個事實(shí)：

1. One event can precede another without causing it. Some people believe that when one event precedes another, it must be the cause of the other. Most superstition is rooted in this notion. For example, breaking a mirror, crossing paths with a black cat, or walking under a ladder is believed to cause misfortune. You don’t have to be superstitious to make this mistake. You may believe that your professor gave an unannounced quiz today because students were inattentive the day before yesterday, whereas he may have planned it at the beginning of the semester. Or you may believe the stock market fell because a new president took office, when other factors might have prompted the decline.
2. 一個事件可以先于另一個事件發(fā)生而不引發(fā)它塘揣。有人認(rèn)為包雀，當(dāng)一個事件先于另一事件發(fā)生時，它就是這事件的原因亲铡。大多數(shù)迷信根植于這個概念才写。例如葡兑，打破鏡子，碰上黑貓赞草，或走在梯子下面被認(rèn)為會造成不幸讹堤。你不必迷信犯這些錯誤，你可能會相信你的教授今天做了一個沒提前通知的測驗(yàn)厨疙，因?yàn)閷W(xué)生前幾天不注意洲守，而他可能會在本學(xué)期開始就計劃≌雌啵或者您可能認(rèn)為股市下跌是因?yàn)樾驴偨y(tǒng)上任岖沛，然而，其他因素也可能會導(dǎo)致股市下跌搭独。

The problem with believing that preceding events necessarily cause subsequent events is that such thinking overlooks the possibility of coincidence. This possibility is the basis of the principle that “correlation does not prove causation.” In order to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, it is necessary to rule out coincidence, or at least to make a persuasive case against it.
相信前一事件必然導(dǎo)致后一事件所在的問題是婴削，這種思考忽視了巧合的可能性。這種可能性是“相關(guān)性不能證明因果關(guān)系”這一原則的基礎(chǔ)牙肝。為了建立因果關(guān)系唉俗，有必要排除巧合，或者至少對此作出有說服力的說法配椭。

2. Not all causation involves force or necessity. The term causation is commonly associated with a physical action affecting a material reality, such as, a lightning bolt striking a house and the house catching fire and burning. Or a flowerpot being accidentally dropped out a window and then falling to the ground and breaking. Or a car speeding, failing to negotiate a curve, careening off the highway, and crashing into a tree. In such cases a scientific principle or law applies (combustion, gravity, inertia), and the effect is inevitable or at least highly predictable.
   2．不是所有的因果關(guān)系都是強(qiáng)制或必要的虫溜。因果關(guān)系通常與影響物質(zhì)現(xiàn)實(shí)的物理行為相關(guān)聯(lián)，例如閃電擊中房子股缸，房子失火衡楞，或者一個花盆不小心從窗戶掉出去，然后摔倒在地敦姻，打破了瘾境；或者汽車超車時沒注意路彎，沖出高速公路镰惦，撞上一棵樹迷守。在這種情況下，科學(xué)原則或法律條款（燃燒旺入，重力兑凿，慣性），效果是不可避免的或至少是很能預(yù)測到的茵瘾。

That type of causation is valid, but it would be a mistake to think of it as the only type. Causation also occurs in the nonmaterial realities we call human affairs—more specifically, in the processes of emotion and thought. That type of causation has little, if anything, to do with scientific principles or laws, is almost never inevitable, and is often difficult to predict. If we are to avoid oversimplification, we need to define causation in a way that covers both the scientific realm and the realm of human affairs. Here is a footnote for this: As its first definition of cause, the Oxford English Dictionary gives “that which produces an effect; that which gives rise to any action, phenomenon, or condition.” The distinction between “produces” and “gives rise to” is what we are referring to here. We will therefore define causation as the phenomenon of one thing influencing the occurrence of another. The influence may be major or minor, direct or indirect, proximate or remote in time or space. It may also be irresistible, as in The Context the examples of combustion, gravity, and inertia mentioned previously; or resistible, as in following parental teaching or the example of one’s peers. In the latter case, and in other matters involving ideas, the influence (cause) does not force the effect to occur but instead invites, encour- ages, or inspires it. Consider these examples:
這種因果關(guān)系是有效的礼华，但認(rèn)為它是唯一的類型是錯誤的。因果關(guān)系也發(fā)生在我們所說的人類事務(wù)的非物質(zhì)現(xiàn)實(shí)——更具體地說是在情感和思想的過程中拗秘。這種因果關(guān)系與科學(xué)原理或法律規(guī)則有關(guān)床嫌，幾乎不可避免耙册，往往難以預(yù)測定硝。如果我們要避免過分簡化，我們就需要以涵蓋科學(xué)界和人類事務(wù)的方式來界定因果關(guān)系。這是一個腳注：作為其原因的第一個定義奸腺，牛津英語詞典指出：“給出了一種可靠的定義;導(dǎo)致任何行動餐禁，現(xiàn)象或條件”。這個定義在“生產(chǎn)”和“產(chǎn)生”之間的區(qū)別就是我們在這里所指的突照。因此帮非，我們將把因果定義為一個影響另一個事物發(fā)生的一個現(xiàn)象。影響可能是主要或次要的讹蘑，直接的或間接的末盔，在時間或空間上接近或偏離的。這也可能是不可抗拒的座慰，如“上下文”中所述的燃燒陨舱，重力和慣性的例子;或可抵抗的，如以下的父母教學(xué)或同齡人的例子版仔。在后一種情況下游盲，在涉及想法的其他事項(xiàng)中，影響（原因）不會強(qiáng)制產(chǎn)生影響蛮粮，而是邀請益缎，鼓勵或啟發(fā)它∪幌耄考慮如下這些例子：

The idea that intelligence is genetically determined led early twentieth-century educators to conclude that thinking cannot be taught, and thus to emphasize rote learning and expand vocational curriculums.
智力在遺傳上的決定導(dǎo)致二十世紀(jì)初的教育家認(rèn)為思維不能被教導(dǎo)莺奔，從而強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)習(xí)和擴(kuò)大職業(yè)課程。

The idea that people are naturally good, and therefore not personally responsible for their bad deeds, has shifted blame to parents, teachers, and society, and caused judges to treat criminals more leniently.
人們自然而然對自己的不良行為不負(fù)個人責(zé)任的觀念变泄，把責(zé)任轉(zhuǎn)歸給家長令哟，老師和社會，造成法官更加寬容地對待罪犯妨蛹。

The idea that one race or ethnic group is superior to another has led to military campaigns against neighboring countries, discriminatory laws, slavery, and genocide.
一個種族或民族優(yōu)先于另一種族的觀念励饵，導(dǎo)致對鄰國的軍事行動，歧視性法律滑燃，奴隸制度和種族滅絕役听。

The idea that “no one over thirty can be trusted,” which was popular in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, led many young people to scorn both the advice of their parents and teachers and the accumulated wisdom of the past.
在二十世紀(jì)六，七十年代表窘，在美國受歡迎的“三十人無一能信”這一觀點(diǎn)典予，導(dǎo)致許多年輕人鄙視父母和老師的忠告和他們過去積累的智慧。

The idea that feelings are a reliable guide to behavior has led many people to set aside restraint and follow their impulses. This change has arguably led to an increase in incivility, road rage, and spouse abuse, among other social problems.
在二十世紀(jì)六乐严，七十年代瘤袖，在美國受歡迎的“三十歲以上的人，無一能信”這一觀點(diǎn)昂验，導(dǎo)致許多年輕人鄙視父母和老師的忠告和他們過去積累的智慧捂敌。

The idea that self-esteem is prerequisite to success changed the traditional idea of self-improvement, inspired hundreds of books focused on self- acceptance, and led educators to more indulgent views of homework, grading, and discipline.
自尊是成功的先決條件的理念艾扮，改變了傳統(tǒng)的自我完善觀念，啟發(fā)了數(shù)百本專注于自我認(rèn)知的書籍占婉，并引導(dǎo)教育工作者更加合理分配家庭作業(yè)泡嘴，分級和紀(jì)律觀念。

In each of these examples, one idea influenced the occurrence of an action or belief and, in that sense, caused it. Columnist George Will no doubt had this view of causation in mind when he encountered the claim that “no one has ever dropped dead from viewing ‘Natural Born Killers,’ or listening to gangster rap records.” Will responded, “No one ever dropped dead reading ‘Der Sturmer,’ the Nazi anti-Semitic newspaper, but the culture it served caused six million Jews to drop dead.”
在這些的每個例子中逆济，一個想法影響了一個行為或信念的發(fā)生酌予，從這個意義上說，確實(shí)是引發(fā)了它們的發(fā)生奖慌。專欄作家喬治毫無疑問有關(guān)于這樣因果關(guān)系的深入見解抛虫，當(dāng)他遇到這樣的評論： 沒有人因?yàn)榭吹健白匀怀錾臍⑷苏摺倍劳觯蚵牭搅髅ビ浾哂涗浀臅r候會死亡简僧〗ㄒ”他回答說：“沒有人因?yàn)殚喿x納粹反猶太人報的“德斯特爾”而死亡，但這種文化的影響造成了600萬猶太人死亡岛马」阃梗“

3. There is a wild card in human affairs—free will. So far we have noted that causation occurs through force or necessity in material events, but through influence in nonmaterial events—that is, in human affairs. Also, that in human affairs, effects are to some extent predictable but much less so than in material events. Now we need to consider why they are less predictable. The answer is because people possess free will—that is, the capacity to respond in ways that oppose even the strongest influences. Free will is itself a causative factor, and one that can trump all others. This explains why some people who grow up in the worst of circumstances—for example, in dysfunctional, abusive families or in crime-ridden neighborhoods in which the main sources of income are drug dealing and prostitution—resist all the negative influences and become decent, hardworking, and law-abiding. (It can also explain why some people who are more fortunate economically and socially fall short of those ideals.)
4. 在人類事件中有一個通用常見的概念——意志自由。到目前為止蛛枚，我們已經(jīng)注意到谅海，因素在物質(zhì)事件中是通過行為或必要性發(fā)生的，但通過對非物質(zhì)事件來影響蹦浦，也就是說在人類事件中也會發(fā)生的扭吁。而且，在人類事件中盲镶，這些結(jié)果在一定程度上是可預(yù)測的侥袜，但比在物質(zhì)事件中能預(yù)測的少得多。現(xiàn)在我們需要考慮為什么它們不那么可預(yù)測溉贿。答案是因?yàn)槿藗儞碛凶杂梢庵尽褪且苑磳ψ顝?qiáng)影響力的方式作出反應(yīng)的能力枫吧。自由意志本身就是一個致命的因素，一個可以勝過所有其他因素的因素宇色。這就解釋了為什么一些在最惡劣情況下長大的人——例如在功能缺陷九杂，家庭暴力或犯罪活動的社群中，他們的主要收入來源是毒品交易和賣淫——抵制所有的負(fù)面影響并變得體面宣蠕，努力工作例隆，守法守法。 （這也可以解釋為什么那些在經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會上更幸運(yùn)的人都不符合這些類型抢蚀。）

It has been rightly said that people can seldom choose the circumstances life places them in, but they can always choose their responses to those circumstances because they possess free will. In any investigation of causes and effects in human affairs, the factor of free will must be considered. However, possessing free will is no guarantee that we will apply it. In fact, one factor makes such application difficult. That factor is habit.
正確地說镀层，人們很少能選擇他們所處的生活環(huán)境，但是他們總是有自由的意志來選擇他們對這種情況的反應(yīng)皿曲。在對人的事業(yè)的起因和影響的調(diào)查中唱逢，必須考慮自由意志的因素吴侦。但是，擁有自由意志并不能保證我們能很好運(yùn)用它坞古。事實(shí)上备韧，有一個因素使得這種應(yīng)用變得困難，這個因素就是習(xí)慣绸贡。

Habit inclines smokers to continue smoking, liars to continue lying, selfish people to go on being selfish, and countless people to unthinkingly embrace the latest fashion. When leading designers say “hemlines should be raised,” hordes of women comply. When oversized beltless denim jeans are in vogue, hordes of young men waddle down the street, the tops of their pants at the middle of their hips and the crotches of their pants touching their knees. When iconic athletes shave their heads, legions of fans shave theirs. Resisting the force of habit is always possible but never easy.
習(xí)慣吸煙者繼續(xù)吸煙盯蝴，騙子繼續(xù)說謊毅哗，自私的人繼續(xù)自私听怕，無數(shù)人不假思索地去追時尚。當(dāng)設(shè)計師們說“要血脈噴張的時候”虑绵，婦女們就會跟隨附和尿瞭。當(dāng)超大的無腰牛仔褲流行時，一群年輕人在街上蹣跚而過翅睛，褲子的頂部在他們臀部的中間声搁，褲子的褲襠碰到膝蓋。當(dāng)標(biāo)志性的運(yùn)動員刮胡子時捕发，一群球迷刮胡子疏旨。抵抗習(xí)慣的力量總是存在的，但永遠(yuǎn)都不容易扎酷。

The most difficult habits to break are those that accrue incrementally over time. Consider the acceptance of increasing violence and sex on TV and in films. In the 1950s, not much violence and sex were shown on-screen, and what was shown was tame. Then viewers were given glimpses of blood and gore and brief peeks at naked flesh. Year by year, the number of such scenes increased and the camera drew in a little closer and lingered a little longer over them. Over time, one thematic taboo after another was broken. Eventually violence and sexuality were joined, and themes of rape, child molestation, and even cannibalism were introduced. More recently, the industry crafted a new vehicle for assaulting the senses—the forensics program, which depicts rape-murders as they happen, then presents every gory detail of the autopsies in extreme close-up, accompanied by frequent, graphic flashbacks to refresh in viewers’ minds the shocking details of the crimes.
打破最困難的習(xí)慣是隨著時間的推移逐漸加深的習(xí)慣檐涝。考慮在電視和電影中接受暴力和性暴力的增加法挨。在二十世紀(jì)五十年代谁榜，暴力和性內(nèi)容很少出現(xiàn)在熒屏上，顯示的是都是溫馴的凡纳。然后窃植，觀眾被瞥見血肉和血肉，并以赤裸裸的肉體略看荐糜。年復(fù)一年巷怜，這些場景的數(shù)量增加了，相機(jī)被拉近一點(diǎn)暴氏，并且在它們之間長了一點(diǎn)丛版。隨著時間的推移，一個主題禁忌又一次被打破了偏序。最終暴力和性行為加入页畦，強(qiáng)奸，兒童猥褻甚至同類相食的主題也被引入研儒。最近豫缨，該行業(yè)制造了一種新的手段來攻擊感官 - 取證程序独令，它描繪了強(qiáng)奸事件的發(fā)生，然后在極端特寫中呈現(xiàn)尸體解剖的每一個血腥細(xì)節(jié)好芭，伴隨著頻繁的圖形閃回燃箭，以刷新觀眾對這些罪行的令人震驚的細(xì)節(jié)表示懷疑。

At first the violent and sexual content provoked protests. In time, however, as sensational images became familiar, people formed the habit of accepting them, and the protests diminished. (In time the habit grew so strong that anyone who objected to graphic sex and violence was considered odd.) What happened in this case was not that people lost their freedom or ability to protest, but instead that habit took away their inclination to protest.
起初舍败，暴力和性侵犯激發(fā)了抗議活動招狸。然而，隨著聳人聽聞的形象變得熟悉邻薯，人們形成了接受他們的習(xí)慣裙戏，抗議減弱。 （習(xí)慣變得如此強(qiáng)烈厕诡，任何反對圖形性和暴力的人都被認(rèn)為是奇怪的累榜。）在這種情況下，發(fā)生了什么事情并不是說人們失去了自由或抗議的能力灵嫌，而是習(xí)慣剝奪了自己的抗議傾向壹罚。

4. Causation is often complex. When a small pebble is dropped into a serene pool of water, it causes ripples in every direction, and those ripples can affect even distant waters. NASA researchers have found a similar process at work in the atmosphere: tiny particles in the air called aerosols can have a rippling effect on the climate thousands of miles away from their source region.
   因果關(guān)系往往很復(fù)雜。當(dāng)一個小卵石落入平靜的水池中時寿羞，它會在每個方向引起波紋猖凛，而這些波紋也會影響到遠(yuǎn)處的水域。美國宇航局的研究人員在大氣中發(fā)現(xiàn)了類似的情況：空氣中的微粒稱為氣溶膠绪穆，可能對源區(qū)域外數(shù)千英里的氣候產(chǎn)生連鎖反應(yīng)辨泳。
   Causation [k??'ze??(?)n] n. 原因；因果關(guān)系霞幅；出現(xiàn)
   pebble ['peb(?)l] n. 卵石漠吻；水晶透鏡vt. 用卵石鋪
   serene [s?'ri?n] adj. 平靜的；安詳?shù)乃究遥磺宄旱耐灸耍磺缋实膎. 平靜；晴朗vt. 使平靜
   ripples ['r?pl] n. 漣漪扔傅；波紋（ripple的復(fù)數(shù)）v. 呈波狀（ripple的單三形式）
   even ['i?v(?)n] adj. [數(shù)] 偶數(shù)的耍共；平坦的；相等的adv. 甚至猎塞；即使试读；還；實(shí)際上vt. 使平坦荠耽；使相等vi. 變平钩骇；變得可比較；成為相等n. (Even)人名；(法)埃旺倘屹；(德)埃文银亲；(英)埃文
   distant ['d?st(?)nt] adj. 遙遠(yuǎn)的；冷漠的纽匙；遠(yuǎn)隔的务蝠；不友好的，冷淡的
   atmosphere ['?tm?sf??] n. 氣氛烛缔；大氣馏段；空氣
   particles ['pɑrt?kl] n. 微粒，粒子践瓷；粒子系統(tǒng)院喜；碎木料（particle的復(fù)數(shù)形式）
   aerosols n. [物化] 氣溶膠，噴霧器（aerosol的復(fù)數(shù)形式）
   climate [?kla?m?t] n. 氣候当窗；風(fēng)氣够坐；思潮寸宵；風(fēng)土
   region ['ri?d?(?)n] n. 地區(qū)崖面；范圍；部位

Effects in human affairs can also be complex. In an effort to cut costs, the owner of a chemical plant may dispose of chemicals in a nearby stream that flows into a river. This action may result in effects he did not intend, including the pollution of the river, the killing of fish, and even the contracting of cancer by people living far from his plant. Those effects will be no less real because he did not intend them.
對人事的影響也可能很復(fù)雜梯影。為了降低成本巫员，化工廠主可能將化學(xué)品排放到流入河流的小溪中。這種行為可能會導(dǎo)致他沒想到的后果甲棍，包括河流的污染简识，魚類滅絕，甚至導(dǎo)致生活在遠(yuǎn)離他的工廠的人們的癌癥感猛。這些影響將不會真實(shí)七扰，因?yàn)樗]想到颈走。
affair [?'fe?] n. 事情咱士；事務(wù)立由；私事序厉；（尤指關(guān)系不長久的）風(fēng)流韻事
chemical ['kem?k(?)l] n. 化學(xué)制品，化學(xué)藥品adj. 化學(xué)的
plant [plɑ?nt] n. 工廠弛房，車間；植物；設(shè)備牺堰；莊稼vt. 種植颅围；培養(yǎng)院促；栽培；安置vi. 種植n. (Plant)人名渐溶；(英弄抬、西掂恕、意)普蘭特；(法)普朗
dispose [d?'sp??z] vt. 處理依啰；處置店枣；安排vi. 處理鸯两；安排；（能夠）決定n. 處置忙灼；性情
pollution [p?'lu??(?)n] n. 污染污染物
contracting [k?n'tr?kt] adj. 締約的缀棍；承包的机错；收縮的
intend [?n'tend] vt. 打算；想要青瀑；意指vi. 有打算

Awoman in the early stages of influenza, unaware that she is ill, may sneeze while on a crowded airplane and infect dozens of her fellow passengers. As a result, they may lose time at work; some may have to be hospitalized; those with compromised immune systems could conceivably die. Given her lack of knowledge of her condition, no reasonable person would consider her culpable (morally responsible) for the effects of her sneeze, but there would still be no doubt that she caused them.
流感初期的女士斥难，并未察覺她生病了，可能在擁擠的飛機(jī)上打噴嚏群扶，感染了數(shù)十名旅客镀裤。因此暑劝，他們可能不能正常工作; 有些可能需要住院治療; 那些免疫系統(tǒng)受損的人可能會死亡。鑒于她對病情的了解不足幕垦，理性的人不會認(rèn)為她對打噴嚏的后果負(fù)有責(zé)任的（道義上的責(zé)任）先改，但她無疑是造成傷害的纺且。
influenza [?nfl?'enz?] n. [內(nèi)科] 流行性感冒（簡寫flu）稍浆；家畜流行性感冒
sneeze [sni?z] vi. 打噴嚏n. 噴嚏
fellow ['fel??] n. 家伙衅枫；朋友；同事步咪；會員adj. 同伴的猾漫，同事的感凤；同道的vt. 使…與另一個對等陪竿；使…與另一個匹敵n. (Fellow)人名；(英)費(fèi)洛
hospitalized ['hɑsp?tl,a?z] vt. 住院闰挡；入院就醫(yī)（hospitalize的過去分詞）
compromised adj. 妥協(xié)的；妥協(xié)讓步的溪北，缺乏抵抗力的vt. 妥協(xié)刻盐；連累（compromise的過去分詞）
immune [?'mju?n] adj. 免疫的劳翰；免于……的佳簸，免除的n. 免疫者；免除者
conceivably [k?n'si?v?bl?] adv. 令人信服地听想；可相信地马胧；想得到地
culpable ['k?lp?b(?)l] adj. 有罪的佩脊；該責(zé)備的；不周到的出牧；應(yīng)受處罰的
morally ['m?r?l?] adv. 道德上歇盼；有道德地豹缀；確實(shí)地
doubt [da?t] n. 懷疑；疑問啸如；疑惑v. 懷疑组底；不信；恐怕江滨；拿不準(zhǔn)

A car is driving on the interstate at night. In rapid succession, a deer jumps out and, the driver slams on his brakes but still hits and kills the deer, the car traveling closely behind slams into his car, and five other cars do likewise, each crashing into the car in front. As a result of this chain reaction, the drivers and passengers suffer a variety of injuries— minor in the case of those wearing seat belts, major in others. The task of identifying the causative factors requires careful attention to the details. The initial cause was the deer’s crossing the road at an unfortunate time, but that is not the only cause. The first driver caused the deer’s demise. Each of the other drivers caused the damage to the front end of his or her car and back end of the car in front.* And the passengers who did not fasten their seat belts caused their injuries to be more severe than those of other drivers and passengers.
夜間唬滑，一輛車正在州際公路上行駛棺弊。下面情況接連出現(xiàn)模她，一只鹿跳出來，司機(jī)猛踩剎車但仍然撞死了鹿尊勿，身后緊跟的車輛撞到前面的車元扔，另外還有五輛車同樣撞到前面的車旋膳。由于這一系列連鎖反應(yīng)验懊，司機(jī)和乘客遭受各種傷害——系安全帶的人受傷較少，其他人受傷較多祟滴。識別其中因果關(guān)系需要注意細(xì)節(jié)。最初的原因是鹿在一個不幸運(yùn)的時候過馬路骑晶，但這不是唯一的原因桶蛔。 第一個司機(jī)造成鹿死亡仔雷。 每個其他司機(jī)造成他或她的車前端和前車后方的損壞舔示。*沒有系好安全帶的乘客造成的自己受的傷害比其他司機(jī)惕稻、乘客更嚴(yán)重蝙叛。
interstate [?nt?'ste?t] adj. 州際的借帘；州與州之間的. （美）州際公路
succession [s?k'se?(?)n] n. 連續(xù)；繼位蔫缸；繼承權(quán)捂龄；[生態(tài)] 演替
In rapid succession接連不斷
slams [sl?ms,] 砰然聲加叁；批評它匕，猛擊
brakes [brek] n. [機(jī)][車輛] 剎車（brake的復(fù)數(shù)）；[機(jī)] 制動告希；剎車系統(tǒng)v. [機(jī)][車輛] 剎車（brake的第三人稱單數(shù)）燕偶；打碎
variety [v?'ra??t?] n. 多樣础嫡；種類榴鼎；雜耍巫财；變化，多樣化
injuries ['?nd??ri] n. 傷害赫舒，傷痛（injury的復(fù)數(shù)）接癌；受傷
causative ['k??z?t?v] adj. 成為原因的；惹起…的n. 使役動詞
demise [d?'ma?z] n. 死亡园担，終止弯汰；轉(zhuǎn)讓湖雹；傳位vt. 遺贈摔吏；禪讓
fasten ['fɑ?s(?)n] vt. 使固定；集中于据某；扎牢癣籽；強(qiáng)加于vi. 扣緊滤祖；抓捉惩汤求；集中注意力
severe [s?'v??] adj. 嚴(yán)峻的；嚴(yán)厲的寡喝；劇烈的；苛刻的

These examples contain a valuable lesson about the need for care in investigating causes and effects. But this lesson will be even clearer if we examine a case in the way investigation usually proceeds—backward in time from the latest effect to the earliest causative factor; that is, to the “root” cause.
這些例子包含有關(guān)在調(diào)查原因和影響方面需要注意的有價值的教訓(xùn)赊颠。但是，這個教訓(xùn)可以變得很清晰如果我們特定方式進(jìn)行調(diào)查——從最后的影響回溯到最初的影響顶猜；即回到“根”原因长窄。
investigating [?n'v?st?,get] v. 調(diào)查纲菌；審查（investigate的ing形式）
proceeds ['pr??si?dz] n. 收入翰舌，收益椅贱；實(shí)收款項(xiàng)
backward ['b?kw?d] adj. 向后的；反向的计技；發(fā)展遲緩的adv. 向后地垮媒；相反地

For example, it has been clear for some time that the number of people of Middle Eastern origin living in Europe has increased so dramatically that before long, according to some observers, Europe might well be called “Eurabia.” What caused this change? Analysts found that for decades European companies, with their governments’ blessing, have been inviting foreigners to work in their countries, and these workers brought their families, formed their own enclaves, built their own mosques and churches, and “planted” their own ethnic cultures. The next question is what caused the governments to approve this influx of workers? The answer is that the native population of European countries had declined to a point near or below “replacement level” and there were too few native-born workers to fill the available jobs and thus fund older people’s pensions and health care services.
例如驾胆，一段時間以來丧诺，居住在歐洲的原籍中東人人數(shù)明顯增加驳阎，根據(jù)一些觀察家的說法，歐洲可能被稱為“歐拉柏”蜘腌，是什么導(dǎo)致了這種變化撮珠？分析人士發(fā)現(xiàn)芯急，幾十年來，隨著政府的鼓勵免姿，歐洲公司一直邀請外國人到國內(nèi)工作胚膊，這些工人帶他們的家人組建自己的飛地想鹰，建造了自己的清真寺和教堂杖挣，并“種植”了自己的種族文化惩妇。下一個問題是政府為何是否批準(zhǔn)了這些工人涌入呢？答案是乔妈，歐洲國家的本地人口已經(jīng)下降到接近或低于“替代水平”的地步路召，本地出生的工人太少股淡，不足以填補(bǔ)現(xiàn)有工作廷区，從而支持老年人的退休金和保健服務(wù)隙轻。
origin ['?r?d??n] n. 起源玖绿；原點(diǎn)；出身呐籽；開端
dramatically [dr?'m?t?k?l?] adv. 戲劇地绝淡；引人注目地adv. 顯著地牢酵，劇烈地
Eurabia歐拉伯衙猪；阿拉伯的歐洲
decades n. 數(shù)十年（decade的復(fù)數(shù)）
companies [?k?mp?niz] n. 公司垫释，企業(yè)棵譬；伙伴（company的復(fù)數(shù)形式）；公司財產(chǎn)v. 陪伴曼尊，伴隨（company的三單形式）
blessing ['bles??] n. 祝福骆撇；賜福神郊；禱告v. 使幸福（bless的ing形式）涌乳；使神圣化甜癞；為…祈神賜福n. (Blessing)人名带欢；(英乔煞、德)布萊辛
formed [f?:md] adj. 成形的，成形v. 成形加工（form過去時形式）
enclaves飛地
mosque [m?sk] n. 清真寺
churches [t???t??s] n. 教會逗宜，教堂（church復(fù)數(shù)形式）v. 到教堂接受宗教儀式（church的第三人稱單數(shù)形式）
ethnic ['eθn?k] adj. 種族的纺讲；人種的
approve [?'pru?v] vt. 批準(zhǔn)熬甚；贊成乡括；為…提供證據(jù)vi. 批準(zhǔn)琼开；贊成；滿意
influx ['?nfl?ks] n. 流入鲜锚；匯集；河流的匯集處
population [p?pj?'le??(?)n] n. 人口绘迁；[生物] 種群脊髓，[生物] 群體将硝；全體居民
pension ['pen?(?)n] n. 退休金屏镊，撫恤金而芥；津貼棍丐；膳宿費(fèi)vt. 發(fā)給養(yǎng)老金或撫恤金

What caused the population decline? The availability of effective birth control techniques in the 1960s and 1970s and the choice of more and more families to employ those techniques. What caused so many families to limit the number of their children? One factor was the century-long population movement from rural areas to cities, where children are an economic burden rather than an asset. Others were the growing emphasis on self-fulfillment and the corresponding tendency to regard child rearing as self-stifling.
是什么導(dǎo)致人口下降歌逢？ 20世紀(jì)60年代和70年代有效的節(jié)育技術(shù)的實(shí)用性以及越來越多的家庭選擇采用這些技術(shù)的選擇秘案。 造成這么多家庭限制孩子個數(shù)的原因是什么潦匈？一個因素是從農(nóng)村到城市的長達(dá)一個世紀(jì)的人口流動茬缩，兒童不是資產(chǎn)而是經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)凰锡。另一些則越來越強(qiáng)調(diào)自我實(shí)現(xiàn)寡夹，相應(yīng)的將撫養(yǎng)孩子視為自我窒息厂置。
rural ['r??r(?)l] adj. 農(nóng)村的昵济，鄉(xiāng)下的访忿；田園的海铆，有鄉(xiāng)村風(fēng)味的
burden ['b??d(?)n] n. 負(fù)擔(dān)卧斟；責(zé)任珍语；船的載貨量vt. 使負(fù)擔(dān)竖幔；煩擾拳氢；裝貨于n. (Burden)人名馋评；(英)伯登
asset ['?set] n. 資產(chǎn)栗恩；優(yōu)點(diǎn)；有用的東西乳乌；有利條件汉操；財產(chǎn)磷瘤；有價值的人或物n. （法）阿塞（人名）
emphasis ['emf?s?s] n. 重點(diǎn)采缚；強(qiáng)調(diào)扳抽；加強(qiáng)語氣
tendency ['tend(?)ns?] n. 傾向贸呢，趨勢楞陷；癖好
self-fulfillment [,selfful'film?nt] n. 自我實(shí)現(xiàn)固蛾；達(dá)成自己愿望
rearing ['r?r??] n. 飼養(yǎng)；養(yǎng)育昌犹；撫養(yǎng)v. 撫養(yǎng)斜姥；建立（rear的ing形式）铸敏；豎起
stifling ['sta?f(?)l??; 'sta?fl??] adj. 令人窒息的杈笔；沉悶的v. 使窒息蒙具；粉碎（stifle的現(xiàn)在分詞）

As even this brief analysis of causes and effects suggests, facile responses to complex issues—in this case, “Middle Easterners are trying to take over Europe” or “The Crusades are here again, in reverse”—are not only unhelpful but unfair. The following cautions will help you avoid oversimplification in your analyses:
這種對原因和效果的簡要分析也表明禁筏，對復(fù)雜問題的簡單回應(yīng) ——在這種例子篱昔，“中東人正試圖接管歐洲”或“這里有開始十字軍東征州刽，顛倒過來”—— 不僅沒有幫助而且不公平穗椅。以下注意事項(xiàng)將有助于避免您的分析過于簡單：
brief [bri?f] adj. 簡短的房待，簡潔的；短暫的，草率的n. 摘要流椒，簡報宣虾；概要绣硝，訴書vt. 簡報鹉胖，摘要甫菠；作…的提要n. (Brief)人名寂诱；(英)布里夫
suggest [s?'d?est] vt. 提議痰洒，建議丘喻；啟發(fā)仓犬；使人想起；顯示窘面；暗示
facile ['f?sa?l; -s?l] adj. （言語或理論）輕率的财边，未經(jīng)深思熟慮的adj. 溫和的酣难；靈巧的憨募；易做到的
issue ['??u?; '?sju?]n. 問題菜谣；流出尾膊；期號冈敛；發(fā)行物vt. 發(fā)行抓谴，發(fā)布齐邦；發(fā)給措拇；放出丐吓，排出vi. 發(fā)行券犁；流出粘衬；造成…結(jié)果稚新；傳下
Crusades n. 十字軍褂删；十字軍東征
reverse [r?'v??s] n. 背面屯阀；相反难衰；倒退盖袭；失敗vt. 顛倒苍凛；倒轉(zhuǎn)adj. 反面的醇蝴；顛倒的悠栓；反身的vi. 倒退惭适；逆叫
cautions n. 注意事項(xiàng)癞志；警告凄杯；警語（caution的復(fù)數(shù)）v. 告誡戒突；使小心（caution的三單形式）
oversimplification [,ov?,s?mpl?f?'ke??n] n. 過度單純化膊存；過分簡單化

Remember that events seldom, if ever, “just happen.” They occur as the result of specific influences, and these influences may be major or minor, direct or indirect, proximate or remote in time or space; also irresistible (forced or necessary) or resistible (invited, encouraged, or inspired).
記住隔崎，事件不常發(fā)生仍稀，如果有的話技潘，“只是發(fā)生”享幽。它們是由于具體的影響而產(chǎn)生的值桩，這些影響可能是主要或次要的奔坟，直接的或間接的咳秉，在時間或空間上接近或偏離的; 同樣有不可抗拒（強(qiáng)制或必要）或可抵制（邀請澜建，鼓勵或鼓舞）炕舵。
seldom ['seld?m] adv. 很少咽筋，不常
influences n. 影響，影響力庇忌；作用（influence的復(fù)數(shù)形式）vt. 影響皆疹，感化（influence的三單形式）
proximate ['pr?ks?m?t] adj. 近似的略就；最近的
remote [r?'m??t] adj. 遙遠(yuǎn)的表牢；偏僻的崔兴；疏遠(yuǎn)的n. 遠(yuǎn)程
irresistible [?r?'z?st?b(?)l] adj. 不可抵抗的敲茄；不能壓制的堰燎；極為誘人的
resistible [r?'z?st?bl] adj. 可抵抗的
encouraged [?n'k?r?d?d] v. 鼓勵( encourage的過去式和過去分詞 )秆剪；支持仅讽；促進(jìn)何什；鼓動
inspired [?n'spa??d] adj. 有靈感的；官方授意的v. 激發(fā)（inspire的過去分詞）蛛砰；鼓舞

Remember that free will is a powerful causative factor in human affairs, and it is often intertwined with other causes. In the case of the changes in European society, the movement of people from farm to city and the use of birth control were individual choices, but the greater availability of jobs in the cities (an economic reality) and birth control technology (a scientific development) were not.
記住，自由意志是人類事務(wù)中的一個強(qiáng)大的原因因素位仁，往往與其他原因相互交織在一起聂抢。 在歐洲社會發(fā)生變化的情況下琳疏，人們從農(nóng)村到城市的流動以及節(jié)育的使用是個人的選擇空盼，但是城市更多的就業(yè)機(jī)會（經(jīng)濟(jì)現(xiàn)實(shí)）和節(jié)育技術(shù)（科學(xué)發(fā)展 ） 不是揽趾。
causative ['k??z?t?v] adj. 成為原因的篱瞎；惹起…的n. 使役動詞
affairs n. 事務(wù)掠抬，事宜两波；風(fēng)流韻事
intertwined [,?nt??'twa?nd] adj. 纏繞的腰奋；錯綜復(fù)雜的v. 使纏結(jié)，纏繞（intertwine的過去式）

Be aware that in a chain of events, an effect often becomes a cause. For example, the decline in population in Europe caused the importation of foreign workers, which in turn caused a change in the ratio of native-born to foreign citizens, which may in time alter the continent’s dominant values and attitudes.
請注意抱怔，在一連串的事件中劣坊，效果通常會成為一個原因。例如屈留，歐洲人口的下降導(dǎo)致了外國工人的引進(jìn)，這反過來又導(dǎo)致了本地人與外國公民的比例的變化灌危，這可能會及時改變大陸的主導(dǎo)價值觀和態(tài)度康二。
ratio ['re?????] n. 比率，比例
continent ['k?nt?n?nt] n. 大陸勇蝙，洲沫勿，陸地adj. 自制的，克制的
dominant ['d?m?n?nt] adj. 顯性的；占優(yōu)勢的产雹；支配的诫惭，統(tǒng)治的n. 顯性

Be aware that, in dealing with human affairs, outcomes can be unpredictable. Therefore, in determining causes, you may have to settle for probability rather than certainty (as you would in matters that lend themselves to scientific measurement). In other words, you might conclude that something is more likely than not or, when the probability is very high, substantially more likely to be the cause. Either of these conclusions has significantly more force than mere possibility, but it falls short of certainty. The difference is roughly analogous to the difference in legal standards of judgment: in civil cases, the standard is “a preponderance of the evidence” or “clear and convincing evidence,” whereas in criminal cases it is the more demanding standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt.”
要注意，在處理人的事務(wù)時蔓挖，結(jié)果是不可預(yù)知的夕土。因此，在確定原因時时甚，您可能需要解決概率而不是確定性（就像在科學(xué)測量方面那樣）隘弊。換句話說，你可能會得出結(jié)論荒适，有些事情更有可能是而非不是梨熙，或者概率非常高的時候，實(shí)質(zhì)上可能是產(chǎn)生的原因刀诬。這些結(jié)論中的任何一個都比單純的可能性有更大的力量咽扇，但不能確定。差異大致類似于判決時法律標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的差異：在民事案件中陕壹，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是“優(yōu)勢的證據(jù)”或“明確而令人信服的證據(jù)”质欲，而在刑事案件中，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是“明確的證明糠馆∷晃埃”
unpredictable [?npr?'d?kt?b(?)l] adj. 不可預(yù)知的；不定的又碌；出乎意料的n. 不可預(yù)言的事
determining [d?'t??m?n??] n. 決定九昧；測定（determine的ing形式）
settle ['set(?)l] vi. 解決；定居毕匀；沉淀铸鹰；下陷vt. 解決；安排皂岔；使…定居n. 有背長椅n. (Settle)人名蹋笼；(英)塞特爾
certainty ['s??t(?)nt?; -t?n-] n. 必然；確實(shí)躁垛；確實(shí)的事情
measurement ['me??m(?)nt] n. 測量剖毯；[計量] 度量；尺寸教馆；量度制
conclude [k?n'klu?d] vt. 推斷速兔；決定，作結(jié)論活玲；結(jié)束vi. 推斷；斷定；決定
substantially [s?b'st?n?(?)l?] adv. 實(shí)質(zhì)上舒憾；大體上镀钓；充分地
conclusions [k?n'kl???nz] n. 結(jié)論，總結(jié)镀迂；決定（conclusion的復(fù)數(shù)）
significantly [s?g'n?f?k(?)ntl?] adv. 顯著地丁溅；相當(dāng)數(shù)量地
mere [m??] adj. 僅僅的；只不過的n. 小湖探遵；池塘n. (Mere)人名窟赏；(日)目連(姓)；(西)梅雷
roughly ['r?fl?] adv. 粗糙地箱季；概略地
analogous [?'n?l?g?s] adj. 類似的涯穷；[昆] 同功的；可比擬的
preponderance [pr?'p?nd(?)r(?)ns] n. 優(yōu)勢藏雏；多數(shù)拷况；占優(yōu)勢
convincing [k?n'v?ns??] adj. 令人信服的；有說服力的v. 使相信掘殴；使明白（convince的現(xiàn)在分詞）
whereas [we?r'?z] conj. 然而赚瘦；鑒于；反之
demanding [d?'mɑ?nd??] adj. 苛求的奏寨；要求高的起意；吃力的v. 要求；查問（demand的ing形式

In searching for truth, when you encounter possible cause-and-effect relationships, keep these cautions in mind.
在尋找真相時病瞳，當(dāng)遇到可能的因果關(guān)系時揽咕，請牢記這些注意事項(xiàng)。
encounter [?n'ka?nt?; en-] vt. 遭遇仍源，邂逅心褐；遇到n. 遭遇，偶然碰見vi. 遭遇笼踩；偶然相遇
cause-and-effect因果逗爹；有因果關(guān)系的

Applications
應(yīng)用

1.Think of a recent situation in which someone referred inappropriately to “my truth.” Write two or three paragraphs, in your own words, explaining to that person what you learned in this chapter.
想想最近有人不恰當(dāng)?shù)靥岬健拔业恼嫦唷钡那闆r。用你自己的話來寫兩三段嚎于，向他解釋你在本章中學(xué)到的東西掘而。
inappropriately [??n?'pro?pr?rtl?] adv. 不適當(dāng)?shù)?

2. A central question in sociology is How does society evolve? Three well known individuals gave very different answers. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) suggested that it involved three stages: religious, metaphysical, and scientific. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) claimed that it followed Darwinian “natural selection,” in which only the fittest survive. Karl Marx (1818–1883) argued that it occurred through class conflict as a result of economic exploitation. Would belief in relativism—the idea that everyone creates his or her own truth—increase or decrease someone’s motivation to analyze these three viewpoints and pursue the question of society’s evolution? Explain your response.
   社會學(xué)的中心問題是社會如何演化？三位知名人士給出了非常不同的答案于购。奧古斯特·孔德（1798-1857）提出袍睡，它涉及到三個階段：宗教，形而上學(xué)和科學(xué)肋僧。赫伯特·斯潘塞（1820-1903）聲稱斑胜，它遵循達(dá)爾文“自然選擇”控淡，只有適者生存≈古耍卡爾·馬克思（1818-1883）認(rèn)為掺炭，這是通過經(jīng)濟(jì)剝削的階級沖突而發(fā)生的。信仰相對主義-- 每個人都創(chuàng)造自己的真相的想法 - 增加或減少了分析這三個觀點(diǎn)的動機(jī)凭戴，追求社會進(jìn)化問題的答案涧狮？解釋你的回應(yīng)。
   exploitation [??kspl???te??n] n. 開發(fā); 利用; 剝削; 廣告推銷;

3. Read each of the following passages, decide how reasonable it is, and explain your thinking. a. People who believe that “everyone creates his or her own truth” should never argue with anyone about anything. If they do, they are being inconsistent. b. Motivation to do anything depends on the belief that it has not yet been done. Everyone who loses something precious, say a diamond ring, will search diligently and even desperately until it is found. But only a fool would continue searching for it after it was found. It is no different with other kinds of searches, such as the search for truth. Once we think we have it, we stop looking. 閱讀以下每一段么夫，判斷它的合理性者冤，并解釋你的想法。a.相信“每個人都創(chuàng)造自己的真理”的人不應(yīng)該與任何人爭論任何事情档痪。如果他們這樣做涉枫，他們就是言行不一致的。b钞它。做任何事情的動機(jī)都取決于信念還沒有完成拜银。每個失去寶貴東西的人，比如丟了一個鉆石戒指遭垛，都會努力搜尋尼桶，甚至拼命搜尋，直到找到锯仪。但只有一個傻瓜才會在找到之后繼續(xù)尋找泵督。與其他類型的搜索沒有什么不同，例如搜索真相庶喜。一旦我們認(rèn)為我們擁有它小腊，我們就停止尋找。

4. For years grade school students faced this question on their science tests: “True or False—The famous rings of the planet Saturn are composed of solid material.” If the students marked “true,” they lost credit, because the “truth” was that Saturn’s rings were composed of gas or dust. Then, in 1973, radar probes revealed that all those wrong answers had been right. Saturn’s rings are, in fact, composed of solid matter. This confusing case seems to suggest that the truth changed. Did it really? Explain. 多年級學(xué)生在科學(xué)考試中面臨這個問題：“真或假 - 土星的著名的環(huán)是由堅(jiān)實(shí)的材料組成的”久窟，如果學(xué)生回答“真”秩冈，他們失去學(xué)分，因?yàn)椤罢嫦唷笆峭列堑沫h(huán)是由氣體或灰塵組成的斥扛。然后在1973年入问，雷達(dá)探測器就揭露出所有錯誤的答案都是對的。事實(shí)上稀颁，土星的環(huán)是由固體物質(zhì)組成的. 這種混亂的情況似乎表明真相已經(jīng)改變了芬失。真的嗎？說明匾灶。

5. The scene is a campus security office, where two students are being questioned. A few minutes earlier, they were engaged in a fistfight in the cafeteria. The campus police ask them again and again how the fight started. The stories conflict. Because each student seems genuinely convinced that the other one was the aggressor and there were no witnesses, the campus police have no hope of discovering the truth. But is there a truth to discover? Or are there two truths, one for each student’s story? What light does the chapter shed on these questions? 現(xiàn)場是一個校園安全辦公室棱烂，兩名學(xué)生正受到質(zhì)疑。幾分鐘前阶女，他們在自助餐廳進(jìn)行了搏斗颊糜。校園警察一再問他們是如何開架的哩治。描述存在矛盾。因?yàn)槊總€學(xué)生似乎真的相信另一個是侵略者衬鱼，沒有證人锚扎，校園警察沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)真相的希望。但是有沒有真相要發(fā)現(xiàn)馁启？還是有兩個真理，每個學(xué)生的陳述的版本一個芍秆？本章中有什么對揭露這些問題有幫助惯疙？
   aggressor [??ɡr?s?] n. 侵略者; 挑釁者; 侵略國;

6. A strange phenomenon that affects a tiny number of the world’s inhabitants has interested psychologists for some time. It occurs during what Norwegians call the “murky time,” the two months each year during which areas above the Arctic Circle experience almost unrelieved darkness. The effects on people have been discovered to be unfortunate, even dangerous. At worst, people experience severe tenseness, restlessness, fear, a preoccupation with thoughts of death and even suicide. At best, they experience an inability to concentrate, fatigue, a lack of enthusiasm for anything, suspicion, and jealousy. Part of the cause is seen as lack of sleep. Accustomed to day and night, people become confused by constant darkness.13 This phenomenon poses an interesting test of truth. Would it be proper to say the phenomenon was true before it was recognized and acknowledged by psychologists? Or did it become true only when they became aware of it? And what of your relationship to the phenomenon? Before you became aware of it for the first time, whether reading it here or elsewhere, it was not “true to you.” But did that make it any less true? Explain in light of this chapter. 影響世界上少數(shù)居民的奇怪現(xiàn)象有一段時間引起了心理學(xué)家的興趣。它發(fā)生在挪威人稱之為“陰暗時間”期間妖啥，每年兩個月霉颠，北極圈以上的地區(qū)經(jīng)歷了幾乎無法解決的黑暗。對人的影響被發(fā)現(xiàn)是不好的荆虱，甚至是危險的蒿偎。在最壞的情況下，人們經(jīng)歷嚴(yán)重的緊張怀读，不安诉位，恐懼，全神貫注地思考死亡甚至自殺的想法菜枷。最好的是苍糠，他們無法集中精力，疲勞啤誊，缺乏熱情岳瞭，懷疑和嫉妒。原因的一部分被視為缺乏睡眠蚊锹。習(xí)慣于了白天和黑夜瞳筏，現(xiàn)在人們被不斷的黑暗困惑. 這種現(xiàn)象提供了一個有趣的關(guān)于真相的測驗(yàn)。在心理學(xué)家認(rèn)可和承認(rèn)之前牡昆，這種現(xiàn)象是否正確呢姚炕？或者只有當(dāng)他們意識到時它才是正確的？你和這個現(xiàn)象有什么關(guān)系迁杨？在你第一次意識到這一點(diǎn)之前钻心，是否在這里還是其他地方閱讀過，這不是“對你真實(shí)的”铅协，但是這不是真的嗎捷沸？根據(jù)本章解釋。

7. Evaluate the following dialogues in light of what you learned in this chapter. If you lack sufficient knowledge to judge the issue, do some research. 根據(jù)你在本章中學(xué)到的內(nèi)容狐史，對以下對話進(jìn)行評估痒给。如果你缺乏足夠的知識來判斷問題说墨，做一些研究。

a. Martha: I don’t care what the courts say about abortion—I’m convinced it’s murder because the fetus is a human being. Marian: If you want to believe that, fine. Just don’t impose your beliefs on others and prevent them from exercising their rights. Martha: You don’t seem to understand. It’s not just a fetus in my uterus that’s human but the fetus in the uterus of every pregnant woman. Marian: Nonsense. You have no right to classify what exists in someone else’s uterus. That’s her business. You should mind your own business. 瑪莎：我不在乎法庭對墮胎的看法 - 我相信這是謀殺苍柏，因?yàn)樘菏侨祟悺尼斧，旣惏玻喝绻阆胂嘈牛呛檬杂酰灰涯愕男叛鰪?qiáng)加給別人棺棵，阻止他們行使自己的權(quán)利。瑪莎：你似乎不明白熄捍，不僅僅我的子宮里的是一個人類烛恤，而且每個孕婦子宮的胎兒都是。瑪麗安：胡說余耽，你沒有權(quán)利對別人的子宮內(nèi)存在什么進(jìn)行分類缚柏。這是別人的事，你應(yīng)該管好自己的事情碟贾。

b. Barbi: Television shows about suicide should not be aired. Ken: Why? Barbi: Because they cause people to commit suicide. Ken: That’s ridiculous. How can a drama or documentary that shows the tragedy of suicide cause people to commit suicide? Barbi: I don’t know how it happens. Maybe some people have thoughts of suicide already and the show reinforces them. Or maybe they focus on the act of suicide and lose sight of the tragedy. All I know is that attempted suicides increase after the airing of such shows. Barbi：不應(yīng)該播出關(guān)于自殺的電視節(jié)目币喧。肯：為什么袱耽？Barbi：因?yàn)樗麄儗?dǎo)致人們自殺杀餐。肯：太可笑了扛邑，顯示自殺悲劇的戲劇或紀(jì)錄片怎么會導(dǎo)致人們自殺怜浅？巴比：我不知道怎么回事。也許有些人已經(jīng)有了自殺的想法蔬崩，這個節(jié)目加強(qiáng)了這種想法恶座，或者也許他們專注于自殺行為，并忽視悲劇沥阳。我所知道的是跨琳，在這樣的電視節(jié)目之后，企圖自殺的行為增加桐罕。
reinforces [?ri:?n?f?:siz] v. 加固( reinforce的第三人稱單數(shù) ); 使更結(jié)實(shí); 加強(qiáng); 充實(shí);
airing [?er??] v. 晾曬( air的現(xiàn)在分詞 ); 烘干; 播送; 廣播;

c. Mabel: I notice that when you get a newspaper you immediately turn to the astrology column. Do you really believe that nonsense? Alphonse: It’s not nonsense. The planets exercise a powerful influence on our lives; their positions in the heavens at the time of our birth can shape our destiny. Mabel: I can’t believe I’m hearing such slop from a science major. Alphonse: What you fail to understand is that astrology is science, one of the most ancient sciences at that. 馬貝爾：我注意到脉让，當(dāng)你得到一份報紙時，你馬上轉(zhuǎn)向占星術(shù)專欄功炮。 你真的相信那種胡說八道的事情嗎溅潜？Alphonse：這不是胡說八道，行星對我們的生活產(chǎn)生強(qiáng)大的影響; 行星在我們出生時位置可以塑造我們的命運(yùn)薪伏。 馬貝爾：我不敢相信我從科學(xué)專業(yè)那里聽到這樣的說法滚澜。 Alphonse：你不明白的是，占星學(xué)是科學(xué)嫁怀，是最古老的科學(xué)之一设捐。
astrology [??strɑl?d?i] n. 占星術(shù); 占星學(xué); 原始天文學(xué);
slop [slɑp] vt. （液體）晃出; 使（某物）溢出或潑出; 休息借浊，放松，偷懶;

d. Jake: What did you think of the chapter “What Is Truth?” Rocky: It’s stupid. Jake: What do you mean? Rocky: It contradicts Chapter 1. Jake: I didn’t get that impression. Where’s the contradiction? Rocky: In Chapter 1 the author says that we should strive to be individuals and think for ourselves. Now he says that his idea about truth is OK and ours isn’t and that we should follow his. That’s a contradiction.
杰克：你對“什么是真理”這個章節(jié)有什么看法萝招？洛基：這很愚蠢蚂斤。 杰克：你是什么意思？ 洛基：它與第一章相矛盾槐沼。杰克：我沒有產(chǎn)生這個印象曙蒸。 矛盾在哪里？ 洛基：在第一章中岗钩，作者說我們應(yīng)該努力做個人逸爵，為自己而思考。 現(xiàn)在他說他關(guān)于真理的想法都是對的凹嘲，而我們的則不是，而且認(rèn)為我們應(yīng)該跟隨他的想法构韵。矛盾在這里周蹭。

8. Group discussion exercise: How many times have you been certain something was true, only to find out later that it was not? Discuss those experiences with two or three classmates. Be prepared to share the most dramatic and interesting experiences with the rest of the class.
   小組討論練習(xí)：你有多少次確定一些事情是真實(shí)的，卻在后來發(fā)現(xiàn)不是的疲恢？ 與兩三位同學(xué)討論這些經(jīng)歷凶朗。 準(zhǔn)備與課上其他人分享最具戲劇性和趣味性的經(jīng)歷。

A Difference of Opinion
觀點(diǎn)的差異

The following passage summarizes an important difference of opinion. After reading the statement, use the library and/or the Internet and find what knowledgeable people have said about the issue. Be sure to cover the entire range of views. Then assess the strengths and weaknesses of each. If you conclude that one view is entirely correct and the others are mistaken, explain how you reached that conclusion. If, as is more likely, you find that one view is more insightful than the others but that they all make some valid points, con- struct a view of your own that combines the insights from all views and explain why that view is the most reasonable of all. Present your response in a composi- tion or an oral report, as your instructor specifies.
以下段落總結(jié)了意見的重大差異显拳。閱讀聲明后棚愤，使用圖書館或互聯(lián)網(wǎng)，并找到博學(xué)之人對此問題的看法杂数。一定要覆蓋整個觀點(diǎn)宛畦，然后評估每個人的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)。如果你認(rèn)為某個觀點(diǎn)是完全正確的揍移，而其他的觀點(diǎn)是錯誤的次和，那么請解釋你如何得出這個結(jié)論。如果更有可能的是那伐，你發(fā)現(xiàn)一個視圖比其他視圖更具有洞察力踏施，但他們都做出了一些有用的觀點(diǎn)，構(gòu)建了你自己的視圖罕邀，你的視圖是所有視圖的洞察結(jié)合起來的畅形，并解釋了為什么這個視圖是最合理的。在你導(dǎo)師指定的組合或口頭報告中呈現(xiàn)你的回答诉探。

Who is responsible for the fiscal crisis of 2008? This issue continues to be central to overcoming the consequences of the crisis and to ensuring that it does not recur. Commentators are divided on the cause. Some claim it is was the policies of George W. Bush’s administration; others, the policies of the Clinton administration; others, the greed of Wall Street executives. Many point, instead, to congressional pressure on banks, during the 1990s, to give loans to people who could not afford to repay them. Still others say the crisis originated during the Carter administration, specifically in the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977.
誰來為2008年的金融危機(jī)負(fù)責(zé)日熬？這個問題仍然是消除危機(jī)帶來后果并確保不再發(fā)生的關(guān)鍵。評論家根據(jù)危機(jī)發(fā)生的原因產(chǎn)生了分歧阵具。有人聲稱是布什政府的政策導(dǎo)致的碍遍；另一些則認(rèn)為是克林頓政府的政策;其他人定铜，華爾街高管的貪欲。相反怕敬，在20世紀(jì)90年代揣炕，很多時候，國會對銀行施加壓力东跪，向不能償還債務(wù)的人提供貸款畸陡。還有人說，這場危機(jī)是在卡特政府發(fā)起的虽填，特別是1977年的“機(jī)構(gòu)再投資法”丁恭。

Begin your analysis by conducting a Google search using the terms “Community Reinvestment Act,” “causes financial crisis,” and “subprime mortgage crisis.”
你可以通過使用谷歌搜索術(shù)語“機(jī)構(gòu)再投資法案”彬伦、“引起金融危機(jī)”和“次貸危機(jī)”涂屁，來開始分析這個問題。